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Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy

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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 July 2024 | Viewed by 20619

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Alessandro Navarra

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Department of Mining and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, McGill University, 3610 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 0C5, Canada
Interests: pyrometallurgy; mineral processing; operational dynamics; system integration

Dr. Norman Toro

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Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique 1100000, Chile
Interests: leaching; flotation; rheological studies; simulation; deepsea mining
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Prof. Dr. Roberto Parra

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Metallurgical Engineering Department, University of Concepción, Edmundo Larenas 285, Concepción CCP4070386, Chile
Interests: high-temperature physical chemistry applied to pyrometallurgical processes
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Prof. Dr. Henrik Saxen

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Process and Systems Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, 20500 Turku, Finland
Interests: process systems engineering; modeling; optimization; energy systems; iron- and steelmaking
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Extractive metallurgy is capital intensive and, thus, depends on computer-assisted analysis and simulation to attain maximal comprehension of experimental and industrial data. Moreover, extractive metallurgy is a nexus within the material value chain, linking with the upstream mining and mineral processing operations, and feeding into the diversified sectors of construction and manufacturing. It supplies ferrous materials (cast iron and steel), as well as nonferrous (aluminum, copper, nickel, magnesium, titanium, etc.); the raw extracted metals are usually subject to refining and/or alloying prior to deployment into their final application.

Within extractive metallurgy, the target metals are released either through dissolution in corrosive aqueous media, or through high-temperature phase changes, which constitute extractive hydo- and pyro-metallurgy, respectively. Current challenges in extractive metallurgy include energy efficiency, process decarburation, and the effective treatment of waste streams. In particular, much attention is now to foster sustainable supplies of so-called critical elements, including rare earth elements, lithium, cobalt, and platinum group metals.

It is with pleasure that we invite submissions into the current Special Issue devoted to extractive metallurgy, featuring original research, review articles, and technical letters. Topics include, but are not limited to:

Modelling and simulation of unit operations;
Computational fluid mechanics and related simulations;
Treatment of complex mineral feeds;
Hybridization of hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes;
Operations dynamics and scheduling of metallurgical plants;
Application of materials characterization techniques such as XRD and electron microscopy;
Computer-assisted process design;
Logistical analysis of metallurgical supply chains;
Coupling of recycling and extractive metallurgy;
Integration of extraction processes with refining and/or alloying;
Extractive metallurgical considerations within lifecycle analysis.

The Special Issue will contain articles covering both ferrous and nonferrous, including some coverage of critical elements.

Dr. Alessandro Navarra
Dr. Norman Toro
Prof. Dr. Roberto Parra
Prof. Dr. Henrik Saxen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Extractive Metallurgy
Hydrometallurgy
Pyrometallurgy
Mineral Processing
Ferrous
Nonferrous
Modelling
Simulation
CFD
Operational Dynamics
Process Optimization
Integrated Management
Lifecycle Analysis

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

11 pages, 5876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Study on the Process of the H₂ Shaft Furnace Equipped with a Center Gas Distributor

by Shan Yu, Lei Shao and Zongshu Zou

Processes 2024, 12(3), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12030444 - 22 Feb 2024

Viewed by 561

Abstract

In order to explore technically feasible options for improving the performance of the H₂ shaft furnace (HSF), a previously built and validated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was employed in the current work to assess the potential of the operation based on a center gas distributor (CGD). A set of simulations was performed to mimic scenarios where different amounts of feed gas (0–30% of 1400 Nm³/t-pellet) are injected via the CGD located at the bottom of the HSF. The results showed that a relatively large stagnant zone (approximately 8.0-m in height and 0.3-m in diameter) exists in the furnace center where the gas flows are weak owing to an overly shortened penetration depth of the H₂ stream solely injected from the circumferentially installed bustle-pipe. When adopting the CGD operation, however, the center gas flows can be effectively enhanced, consequently squeezing the stagnant zone and thus leading to a better overall performance of the HSF. In particular, the uniformity of the final reduction degree (mean values ranging from 0.8846 to 0.8896) of the solid phase (i.e., pellets) is well improved under the investigated condition where the total gas feed rate is fixed at 1400 Nm³/t-pellet. As for the final mean reduction degree of solid and top gas utilization degree, the two performance indicators rise to maximal values when the CGD feed ratio is increased to 20% and then slightly drop with a further increase in the ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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20 pages, 17236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical Modeling for the Process of Smelting Reduction Ironmaking Integrated with Hydrogen-Rich Coal Gasification

by Yingxia Qu, Shihao Song, Zongshu Zou and Lei Shao

Processes 2024, 12(2), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12020370 - 10 Feb 2024

Viewed by 770

Abstract

To reduce pollution and improve the efficiency of coal resource utilization, this study proposed an integrated process for smelting reduction ironmaking and coal gasification. A multi-zone constrained mathematical model, based on heat and mass balance calculations, was developed to predict the energy and material flows required to produce 1 ton of hot metal. Two scenarios were examined: one using pure O₂ as the gasification agent (referred to as the non-hydrogen-rich process) and the other using a combination of pure O₂ and pure steam (referred to as the hydrogen-rich process). In the non-hydrogen rich process, as the PCR (Post Combustion Ratio) varies from 0% to 8%, the total coal consumption, O₂ consumption, and volume of exported gas decrease by 57%, 57% and 53%, respectively. In the hydrogen-rich process, as the H₂ content increases from 30% to 50%, the exported gas volume increases by 38%. The upper limit of H₂ content in the SRV (Smelting Reduction Vessel) off-gas is mainly determined by the PCR, which decreases from 52.7% to 45.2% as the PCR varies from 0% to 8%. The findings of this work can serve as a theoretical basis for further investigation of the new process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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11 pages, 1898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Chloride and Ferrous Ions on Improving Copper Leaching from Black Copper Ores

by Rossana Sepúlveda, Melissa Martínez, Pía Hernández, Alexis Guzmán and Jonathan Castillo

Processes 2024, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12010013 - 20 Dec 2023

Viewed by 685

Abstract

Although the importance of black copper ores is well established, many topics remain to be studied. This manuscript describes the efforts to improve copper recovery from refractory ores on a pilot scale. Preliminary tests provided the water dose to form a stable and compact agglomerate of 89 L per ton of ore and an acid dosage of 40 kg per ton of ore. The column leaching method resulted in an effluent with 1.63 g/L Cu, a pH of 1.04, and a redox potential of 675 mV (average). Despite the similarities observed in the results, reductant agents were essential to dissolve the MnO₄ present in the black copper ore. Thus, the best Mn extraction results were 67.7% using the MnO₂:FeSO₄ ratio of 1:3. Additionally, the kinetics of leaching are slower than in an industrial operation. The copper ore under study required more than 65 days of leaching to reach the maximum copper recovery. Finally, the total recovery of copper (including washing and resting time) indicates that the maximum value was reached for ore pretreated with NaCl, H₂SO₄, and FeSO₄, concluding that the use of agents favored leaching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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13 pages, 1989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fractal Characterization of Particle Size and Coordinate Distribution of Dispersed Phase in the Steelmaking Process of Combined Blowing Conversion

by Shiyi Chen, Xiaolei Zhou, Zhihao Zheng, Ren Chen, Shan Yu and Chunyang Shi

Processes 2023, 11(9), 2680; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11092680 - 07 Sep 2023

Viewed by 472

Abstract

A two-dimensional water model was used to simulate the process of combined blowing. The effect of boundary conditions on the size and coordinate distribution of the dispersed phase was investigated. The results showed that the frequency of the dispersed phase at a certain size level is proportional to its size; the coordinates of the dispersed phase can be expressed in a dimensionless form that shows its uniformity of distribution. An empirical equation for the influence of the boundary conditions on the size and coordinate distribution of the dispersed phase in combined blowing process is also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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17 pages, 2816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorption of Amido Black 10B by Zinc Ferrite and Titanium Dioxide

by Jinlin Yang, Xingnan Huo, Hanxin Xiao, Zongyu Li, Hengjun Li and Shaojian Ma

Processes 2023, 11(7), 2173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11072173 - 20 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 578

Abstract

This study focuses on the comprehensive recycling and utilization of zinc ferrite, a by-product of wet zinc refining, for the treatment of azo dye wastewater. It explores the adsorption performance of various materials on Amido Black 10B and analyzes the factors that influence the adsorption process. Zinc ferrite derived from the by-products of wet zinc refining, zinc ferrite synthesized via calcination, and titanium dioxide prepared using the sol–gel method are utilized as adsorbents, specifically targeting Amido Black 10B. By adjusting factors such as calcination temperature, mixing ratio, initial pH, adsorbent dosage, adsorption time, initial concentration, and reaction temperature, the effects on the adsorption of Amido Black 10B are studied. Additionally, the performance of composite materials consisting of different crystalline forms of titanium dioxide and purified zinc ferrite is examined. Furthermore, the adsorption process of Amido Black 10B by purified zinc ferrite/titanium dioxide is analyzed in terms of kinetics and thermodynamics. The results show that titanium dioxide and purified zinc ferrite, prepared at temperatures of 300 °C to 550 °C, achieve over 90% removal efficiency when co-adsorbing Amido Black 10B. The best performance is observed at a ratio of 4:6 for purified zinc ferrite to titanium dioxide, with removal efficiency exceeding 80%. The second-order kinetic model fits the adsorption data well, and higher initial solution concentrations lead to decreased adsorption rates. The adsorption process of purified zinc ferrite/titanium dioxide on Amido Black 10B is spontaneous, exothermic, and reduces system disorder. Higher temperatures negatively impact the adsorption process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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16 pages, 1241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Data-Driven Synthesis of a Geometallurgical Model for a Copper Deposit

by Yuyang Mu and Juan Carlos Salas

Processes 2023, 11(6), 1775; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11061775 - 10 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1112

Abstract

Geometallurgy integrates aspects of geology, metallurgy, and mine planning in order to improve decision making in mining schedules. A geometallurgical model is a 3D space that is typically synthesized from early-stage small-scale samples and is composed of several metallurgical units, or domains. This work explores the synthesis of a geometallurgical model for a copper deposit using a purely data-driven unsupervised approach. To this end, a dataset of 1112 drill samples is used, which are clustered using different methods, namely, k-means, hierarchical clustering (AGG), self-organizing maps (SOM), and DBSCAN. Two cluster validity indices (Silhouette and Calinski–Harabasz) are used to select the final model. To validate the potential of the proposed approach, a simulated economic evaluation is conducted. Results demonstrate that k-means exhibits a better performance in terms of modeling and that using the obtained geometallurgical model for mining scheduling increases the project’s Net Present Value (NPV) by as much as 4%. Based on these results, the proposed methodology is an appealing alternative for generating geometallurgical models within greenfield, brownfield and ongoing operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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17 pages, 6640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CFD Predictions for Mixing Times in an Elliptical Ladle Using Single- and Dual-Plug Configurations

by Rohit Tiwari, Bruno Girard, Chantal Labrecque, Mihaiela M. Isac and Roderick I. L. Guthrie

Processes 2023, 11(6), 1665; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11061665 - 30 May 2023

Viewed by 942

Abstract

Argon bottom stirring is commonly practiced in secondary steelmaking processes due to its positive effects on achieving uniform temperatures and chemical compositions throughout a steel melt. It can also be used to facilitate slag metal refining reactions. The inter-mixing phenomena associated with argon gas injection through porous plugs set in the bottom and its stirring efficiency can be summarized by evaluations of 95% mixing times. This study focuses on investigating the impact of different plug positions and ratios of argon flow rates from two plugs on mixing behavior within a 110-tonne, elliptical-shaped industrial ladle. A quasi-single-phase modeling technique was employed for this purpose. The CFD findings revealed that the optimal position of the second plug is to be placed diametrically opposite the existing one at an equal mid-radius distance (R/2). An equal distribution of argon flow rates yielded the best results in terms of refractory erosion. A comparative study was conducted between single- and dual-plug-configured ladles based on flow behavior and wall shear stresses using this method. Furthermore, a transient multiphase model was developed to examine the formation of slag open eyes (SOE) for both single- and dual-plug configurations using a volume of fluid (VOF) model. The results indicated that the dual-plug configuration outperformed the current single-plug configuration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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21 pages, 6544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical and Physical Modelling of Transient Multi-Phase Flows in a Ladle Shroud during Start-Up

by Daniel R. Gonzalez-Morales, Bruno Girard, Chantal Labrecque, Mihaiela M. Isac and Roderick I. L. Guthrie

Processes 2023, 11(6), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11061628 - 26 May 2023

Viewed by 1192

Abstract

The Ladle Shroud has become an important part of secondary steelmaking, with its role in reducing liquid steel contamination and process improvements. Due to the inherent negative pressure at the lower nozzle–Ladle Shroud joint, it is well known that Ladle Shrouds, protecting steel flows between a Ladle and a tundish below, can suffer from inadvertent ingress of air. Therefore, there is a need to apply inert gas injection at the joint. In the present paper, 3D transient multi-phase simulations of flows occurring for a Reverse Tapered Ladle Shroud during start-up were studied using CFD software ANSYS Fluent 19.1. This allowed us to study the initial multi-phase flow developed during the start-up and potential steel reoxidation, based on a first principles approach. Time-dependent phase fields as well as attendant velocity and turbulence fields were obtained, resulting in the prediction of a turbulent multi-phase flow during start-up and filling. Additionally, some transient phenomena like steel splashing and air suction were observed mathematically. A full-scale water model of the Ladle Shroud was used to qualitatively validate the initial multi-phase turbulent flow inside the Ladle Shroud, in the absence of inert gas injection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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17 pages, 3503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Adsorption and Photocatalytic Properties of Zinc Ferrite

by Jinlin Yang, Xingnan Huo, Zongyu Li, Hengjun Li, Teng Wang and Shaojian Ma

Processes 2023, 11(6), 1607; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11061607 - 24 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1052

Abstract

In this study, methyl orange, methylene blue, and amido black 10B were removed as target dyes using purified, synthetic, and purchased zinc ferrite as adsorbents and photocatalysts. The highest removal rates of amido black 10B by these adsorbents ranged from 81.62% to 88.33%. The removal rate of methyl orange was approximately 1%, and the removal rate of methylene blue was approximately 2%. Hence, an investigation was conducted to elucidate the factors that influence the removal efficacy of purified zinc ferrite on amido black 10B. Titanium dioxide prepared at different calcination temperatures was unsuccessful in removing amido black 10B, but the physical mixing of titanium dioxide prepared at suitable calcination temperatures with purified zinc ferrite had a positive effect on amido black 10B removal. Since zinc ferrite could not be used as an adsorbent to remove methyl orange and methylene blue, the photocatalytic degradation properties of zinc ferrite and its influencing factors were studied. The optimal conditions for the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue and methyl orange by zinc ferrite are as follows: a zinc ferrite catalyst dosage of 0.15 g, an initial solution concentration of 20 mg/L, and a pH of 6.0. The dosage of the zinc ferrite/titanium dioxide composite catalyst is 0.15 g, the initial solution concentration is 20 mg/L, and the pH is 6.5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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20 pages, 5518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature and Thermal Stress Analysis of a Hot Blast Stove with an Internal Combustion Chamber

by Donghwi Park, Feng Guo, Jongrak Choi, Joo-Hyoung Park and Naksoo Kim

Processes 2023, 11(3), 707; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030707 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

In this study, the temperature and thermal stress fields of an internal combustion hot blast stove were calculated and analysed. Turbulent, species transport, chemical reaction, radiation, and porous media models were implemented in a computational fluid dynamics model. Thermal boundary conditions on the structure of the hot blast stove were calculated based on the analytic adiabatic Y-plus method. A method to interpolate the thermal boundary conditions to a finite element mesh was developed, and the boundary conditions were mapped through the proposed method. In the on-gas period, the vortex was generated in the dome, and it made the variation of the temperature field in the checker chamber. The maximum temperature of the flue gas reached 1841 K in the on-gas period. In the on-blast period, the flow was considerably even compared to the on-gas period, and the average blast temperature reached 1345 K. The outer region of the checker chamber is shown to be continuously exposed to a higher temperature, which makes the region the main domain in managing the deterioration of the refractory linings. The shell temperature did not change during the operation due to the lower thermal diffusivity of the refractory linings, where the inner surface of the refractory had a maximum temperature change from 1441 K to 1659 K. The maximum temperature of the shell was 418.4 K at the conical region of the checker chamber side. The conical region had the higher maximum and middle principal thermal stresses due to the presence of a large temperature gradient around the conical region, where the largest maximum and middle principal stresses were 300.6 MPa and 192.0 MPa, respectively. The conical region was found to be a significant area of interest where it had a higher temperature and thermal stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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19 pages, 3556 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Geometallurgical Detailing of Plant Operation within Open-Pit Strategic Mine Planning

by Aldo Quelopana, Javier Órdenes, Rodrigo Araya and Alessandro Navarra

Processes 2023, 11(2), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020381 - 26 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1385

Abstract

Mineral and metallurgical processing are crucial within the mineral value chain. These processes involve several stages wherein comminution is arguably the most important due to its high energy consumption, and its impact on subsequent extractive processes. Several geological properties of the orebody impact the efficiency of mineral processing and extractive metallurgy; scholars have therefore proposed to deal with the uncertain ore feed in terms of grades and rock types, incorporating operational modes that represent different plant configurations that provide coordinated system-wide responses. Even though these studies offer insights into how mine planning impacts the ore fed into the plant, the simultaneous optimization of mine plan and metallurgical plant design has been limited by the existing stochastic mine planning algorithms, which have only limited support for detailing operational modes. The present work offers to fill this gap for open-pit mines through a computationally efficient adaptation of a strategic mine planning algorithm. The adaptation incorporates a linear programming representation of the operational modes which forms a Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition, nested within a high-performing stochastic mine planning algorithm based on a variable neighborhood descent metaheuristic. Sample calculations are presented, loosely based on the Mount Isa deposit in Australia, in which a metallurgical plant upgrade is evaluated, showing that the upgraded design significantly decreases the requirement on the mining equipment, without significantly affecting the NPV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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15 pages, 5835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Particle Size Distribution of Coke on Blast Furnace Belt Using Object Detection

by Meng Li, Xu Wang, Hao Yao, Henrik Saxén and Yaowei Yu

Processes 2022, 10(10), 1902; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101902 - 20 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2579

Abstract

Particle size distribution is an important parameter of metallurgical coke for use in blast furnaces. It is usually analyzed by traditional sieving methods, which cause delays and require maintenance. In this paper, a coke particle detection model was developed using a deep learning-based object detection algorithm (YOLOv3). The results were used to estimate the particle size distribution by a statistical method. Images of coke on the main conveyor belt of a blast furnace were acquired for model training and testing, and the particle size distribution determined by sieving was used for verification of the results. The experiment results show that the particle detection model is fast and has a high accuracy; the absolute error of the particle size distribution between the detection method and the sieving method was less than 5%. The detection method provides a new approach for fast analysis of particle size distributions from images and holds promise for a future online application in the plant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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Review

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35 pages, 5971 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Pyrometallurgical Extraction of Antimony from Primary Resources: Current Practices and Evolving Processes

by Elmira Moosavi-Khoonsari, Sina Mostaghel, Andreas Siegmund and Jean-Pierre Cloutier

Processes 2022, 10(8), 1590; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10081590 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5167

Abstract

Antimony is classified as a critical/strategic metal. Its primary production is predominated by China via pyrometallurgical routes such as volatilization roasting—reduction smelting or direct reduction smelting. The performance of most of the pyro-processes is very sensitive to concentrate type and grade. Therefore, technology selection for a greenfield plant is a significant and delicate task to maximize the recovery rate of antimony and subsequently precious metals (PMs), mainly gold, from the concentrates. The current paper reviews the conventional pyrometallurgical processes and technologies that have been practiced for the treatment of antimony concentrates. The blast furnace is the most commonly used technology, mainly because of its adaptability to different feeds and grades and a high recovery rate. In addition, several other more environmentally friendly pyrometallurgical routes, that were recently developed, are reviewed but these are still at laboratory- or pilot-scales. For example, decarbonization of antimony production through the replacement of carbonaceous reductants with hydrogen seems to be feasible, although the process is still at its infancy, and further research and development are necessary for its commercialization. At the end, available refining methods for removal of the most important impurities including arsenic, sulfur, lead, iron, and copper from crude antimony are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Analysis and Simulation in Extractive Metallurgy)

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