Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Materials materials	3.4	5.2	2008	13.9 Days	CHF 2600
Polymers polymers	5.0	6.6	2009	13.7 Days	CHF 2700
Metals metals	2.9	4.4	2011	15 Days	CHF 2600
Compounds compounds	-	-	2021	20.6 Days	CHF 1000

18 pages, 9435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leaching of Copper Concentrates with Iodized Salts in a Saline Acid Medium: Part 2—Effect on Chloride Concentration and an Aerated System

by César I. Castellón and María E. Taboada

Materials 2023, 16(17), 5940; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175940 - 30 Aug 2023

Viewed by 576

Abstract

To enhance the leaching of chalcopyrite concentrates, this study evaluated a new process for extracting copper using iodized solutions and sulfuric acid diluted in seawater without pressure or high temperatures. The work involved a leaching test carried out under various conditions by varying [...] Read more.

To enhance the leaching of chalcopyrite concentrates, this study evaluated a new process for extracting copper using iodized solutions and sulfuric acid diluted in seawater without pressure or high temperatures. The work involved a leaching test carried out under various conditions by varying the concentrations of chloride ions, H₂SO₄, and an evenly distributed oxygen supply in an aeration system. It was demonstrated that Cl⁻ ion addition could promote the chalcopyrite-leaching process. The leaching efficiency of copper reached 70% after 96 h. However, a chloride ion dosage excess can have the opposite effect on extraction, reducing copper recovery. XRD and SEM-EDS results showed that cuprous chloride (CuCl) was formed at high dosages (>0.5 M); meanwhile, at a lower dosage, elemental sulfur (S) was formed in the presence of sulfuric acid solution and seawater medium. In contrast, in an aerated system, surface roughness markedly increased due to continuous oxidation on the surface of the ore. This change in morphology and the high value of the redox potential, given by the aerated system and the acidic environment, allowed copper recovery of up to 70% after 96 h. The results showed that an aerated system is the most effective factor in chalcopyrite concentrate leaching. Full article

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19 pages, 7905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cobalt and Manganese Extraction from Ocean Nodules by Co-Processing with Steel Metallurgical Slag

by Kevin Pérez, Norman Toro, Pedro Robles, Sandra Gallegos, Edelmira Gálvez, Francisco Javier González, Egidio Marino and Pía C. Hernández

Metals 2023, 13(6), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061079 - 07 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1183

Abstract

Polymetallic nodules, also called manganese nodules (due to their high content of this element), contain various valuable metals such as Cu, Ni and Co. These seabed minerals are a good alternative source of Co and Mn due to the decrease in the grade [...] Read more.

Polymetallic nodules, also called manganese nodules (due to their high content of this element), contain various valuable metals such as Cu, Ni and Co. These seabed minerals are a good alternative source of Co and Mn due to the decrease in the grade of mineral deposits on the earth’s surface. For the treatment of manganese nodules, acid-reducing leaching is apparently the most attractive, due to its low cost compared to other processes, short operational times, and it is more friendly to the environment. In this investigation, the extraction of Mn and Co from manganese nodules from two different locations was studied in acid media and by reusing a steel slag obtained from a steel smelting process. An ANOVA analysis was performed to determine the most appropriate Manganese Nodule/Fe_(res) ratio and time to dissolve Co and Mn from the nodules. Effect of temperature on the process was evaluated, and then a residue analysis was carried out. Finally, it was discovered that the best results were obtained when working at 60 °C in a time of 15 min, obtaining extractions of approximately 98% Mn and 55% Co. Additionally, the formation of polluting elements was not observed, nor the precipitation of Mn and Co species in the studied residues. Full article

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23 pages, 1919 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bioleaching Modeling—A Review

by Manuel Saldaña, Matías Jeldres, Felipe M. Galleguillos Madrid, Sandra Gallegos, Iván Salazar, Pedro Robles and Norman Toro

Materials 2023, 16(10), 3812; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103812 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2425

Abstract

The leaching of minerals is one of the main unit operations in the metal dissolution process, and in turn it is a process that generates fewer environmental liabilities compared to pyrometallurgical processes. As an alternative to conventional leaching methods, the use of microorganisms [...] Read more.

The leaching of minerals is one of the main unit operations in the metal dissolution process, and in turn it is a process that generates fewer environmental liabilities compared to pyrometallurgical processes. As an alternative to conventional leaching methods, the use of microorganisms in mineral treatment processes has become widespread in recent decades, due to advantages such as the non-production of emissions or pollution, energy savings, low process costs, products compatible with the environment, and increases in the benefit of low-grade mining deposits. The purpose of this work is to introduce the theoretical foundations associated with modeling the process of bioleaching, mainly the modeling of mineral recovery rates. The different models are collected from models based on conventional leaching dynamics modeling, based on the shrinking core model, where the oxidation process is controlled by diffusion, chemically, or by film diffusion until bioleaching models based on statistical analysis are presented, such as the surface response methodology or the application of machine learning algorithms. Although bioleaching modeling (independent of modeling techniques) of industrial (or large-scale mined) minerals is a fairly developed area, bioleaching modeling applied to rare earth elements is a field with great growth potential in the coming years, as in general bioleaching has the potential to be a more sustainable and environmentally friendly mining method than traditional mining methods. Full article

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23 pages, 5978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the SAG Grinding Process Using Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning: A Case Study of the Chilean Copper Mining Industry

by Manuel Saldaña, Edelmira Gálvez, Alessandro Navarra, Norman Toro and Luis A. Cisternas

Materials 2023, 16(8), 3220; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16083220 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2497

Abstract

Considering the continuous increase in production costs and resource optimization, more than a strategic objective has become imperative in the copper mining industry. In the search to improve the efficiency in the use of resources, the present work develops models of a semi-autogenous [...] Read more.

Considering the continuous increase in production costs and resource optimization, more than a strategic objective has become imperative in the copper mining industry. In the search to improve the efficiency in the use of resources, the present work develops models of a semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill using statistical analysis and machine learning (ML) techniques (regression, decision trees, and artificial neural networks). The hypotheses studied aim to improve the process’s productive indicators, such as production and energy consumption. The simulation of the digital model captures an increase in production of 4.42% as a function of mineral fragmentation, while there is potential to increase production by decreasing the mill rotational speed, which has a decrease in energy consumption of 7.62% for all linear age configurations. Considering the performance of machine learning in the adjustment of complex models such as SAG grinding, the application of these tools in the mineral processing industry has the potential to increase the efficiency of these processes, either by improving production indicators or by saving energy consumption. Finally, the incorporation of these techniques in the aggregate management of processes such as the Mine to Mill paradigm, or the development of models that consider the uncertainty of the explanatory variables, could further increase the performance of productive indicators at the industrial scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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10 pages, 2846 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Removing of Fe, Pb and Hg from Crude Selenium by Fractional Crystallization

by Bei He, Weiyi Wang, Wenlong Jiang, Baoqiang Xu and Hongwei Yang

Metals 2023, 13(4), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040739 - 10 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1177

Abstract

This paper focuses on a fractional crystallization methodology using a rotating and internally gas-cooled crystallizer to purity crude selenium. Experiments using a rotating and gas-cooled crystallizer (cooled finger) were performed. The distribution coefficients of the main impurities (Pb, Fe and Hg) in selenium [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on a fractional crystallization methodology using a rotating and internally gas-cooled crystallizer to purity crude selenium. Experiments using a rotating and gas-cooled crystallizer (cooled finger) were performed. The distribution coefficients of the main impurities (Pb, Fe and Hg) in selenium were presented as a polynomial function of concentration. The experimental parameters such as crystallization temperature and rotation rate were determined and discussed. The appropriate crystallization temperature is 222 °C and the rotation rates are 120 and 300 rpm, respectively. The purity of crude selenium increased from 99.9% to over 99.997%. Compared with the traditional method such as zone melting, this method only takes less than one day to complete several purifications, and the purification effect is better than the former. The removal rates of Hg, Pb and Fe in Se are 28.70%, 97.63% and 96.28%, respectively. The direct yield of Se purified is 92.5%. This study provides an efficient process for high-purity selenium, which has important industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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23 pages, 11277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leaching of Copper Concentrate with Iodized Salts in a Saline Acid Medium: Part 1—Effect of Concentrations

by César I. Castellón and María E. Taboada

Materials 2023, 16(6), 2312; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062312 - 13 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1302

Abstract

One of the main problems in processing chalcopyrite ore with hydrometallurgical methods is its refractoriness, which is due to the formation of a layer that inhibits the contact of the ore with the leaching solution, thus reducing the dissolution rate. The main objective [...] Read more.

One of the main problems in processing chalcopyrite ore with hydrometallurgical methods is its refractoriness, which is due to the formation of a layer that inhibits the contact of the ore with the leaching solution, thus reducing the dissolution rate. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the leaching potential of iodide ions in copper extraction from chalcopyrite concentrate in an acidic seawater medium. Leaching tests were carried out in glass reactors stirred at 45 °C. Parameters such as iodide salt concentration and acidity were evaluated in ranges of 0–5000 ppm and 0–1.0 M, respectively. According to the results obtained, adding iodide ions to a medium acid enhances the leaching kinetics in the chalcopyrite concentrate, observing that it improves copper extraction at low concentrations of 100 ppm KI compared to high concentrations of 5000 ppm KI. As a result, part of the iodide required to oxidize copper tends to sublimate or is associated with other ions producing iodinated compounds such as CuI. Copper extraction reached 45% within the first 96 h, while at 216 h, it reached an extraction of close to 70% copper. The recovery rate improves at potentials between 600 and 650 mV, while at lower potentials, the copper extraction decreases. The mineral surface was analyzed using SEM/EDS and XRD analyses for the identification of precipitates on the surface, finding porous elemental sulfur and precipitated jarosite. An increase in iodide ions improves the leaching kinetics in the chalcopyrite concentrate, observing that it improves copper extraction at low concentrations of 100 ppm KI compared to high concentrations of 5000 ppm KI. As a result, part of the iodide required to oxidize copper tends to sublimate or is associated with other ions producing iodinated compounds such as CuI. Copper extraction reached 45% within the first 96 h, while at 216 h, it reached an extraction of close to 70% copper. The recovery rate improves at potentials between 600 and 650 mV, while at lower potentials, the copper extraction decreases. The mineral surface was analyzed using SEM/EDS and XRD analyses for the identification of precipitates on the surface, finding porous elemental sulfur and precipitated jarosite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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14 pages, 2903 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano Porous Zinc Synthesis on Soft Polyurethane Foam Using Conductive Ink and Electroplating Method

by Mehdi Salimi, Seyed Mohammad Mousavi Khoiee, Eskandar Keshavarz Alamdari, Milad Rezaei and Maryam Karbasi

Metals 2022, 12(11), 1945; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111945 - 13 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1605

Abstract

High specific surface is a significant characteristic in zinc coatings that can be highly applicable in batteries and catalysts. Conventional methods to create foams are not cost-efficient, nor could they make a high specific surface. Electroplating has been developed that can produce a [...] Read more.

High specific surface is a significant characteristic in zinc coatings that can be highly applicable in batteries and catalysts. Conventional methods to create foams are not cost-efficient, nor could they make a high specific surface. Electroplating has been developed that can produce a very high specific surface foam. On the other hand, conductive ink can create an affordable conductive surface with a high specific surface, so the study on using conductive ink, which has a cost-efficient nature, was necessary to create a conductive surface. This work has investigated the effect of crucial parameters, such as graphite size, coating time and bath composition, on the current efficiency and SEM microstructure. As a result, a 3 µm graphite size was found to be appropriate. Coated zinc escalates linearly with current efficiency for up to 5 h, and then it decreases. Although the zinc concentration increases up to 0.12 mol/L in the electrolyte, making a slight increase in loading, the current efficiency was almost unchanged. However, if it increases more, the loading and current efficiency significantly rise so that the loading grows up to 16 times and the current density increases up to 86%. Additionally, the morphology changes from dendritic to compact plates, sphere and semi-sphere, subsequently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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42 pages, 13492 KiB

Open AccessReview

Froth Flotation of Chalcopyrite/Pyrite Ore: A Critical Review

by César I. Castellón, Norman Toro, Edelmira Gálvez, Pedro Robles, Williams H. Leiva and Ricardo I. Jeldres

Materials 2022, 15(19), 6536; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196536 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3683

Abstract

In the present work an intense bibliographic search is developed, with updated information on the microscopic fundamentals that govern the behavior of flotation operations of chalcopyrite, the main copper mineral in nature. In particular, the effect caused by the presence of pyrite, a [...] Read more.

In the present work an intense bibliographic search is developed, with updated information on the microscopic fundamentals that govern the behavior of flotation operations of chalcopyrite, the main copper mineral in nature. In particular, the effect caused by the presence of pyrite, a non-valuable mineral, but challenging for the operation due to its ability to capture a portion of collector and float, decreasing the quality of the concentrate, is addressed. This manuscript discusses the main chemical and physical mechanisms involved in the phenomena of reagent adsorption on the mineral surface, the impact of pH and type of alkalizing agent, and the effect of pyrite depressants, some already used in the industry and others under investigation. Modern collector reagents are also described, for which, although not yet implemented on an industrial scale, promising results have been obtained in the laboratory, including better copper recovery and selectivity, and even some green reagents present biodegradable properties that generate a better environmental perspective for mineral processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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10 pages, 41326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Desulfurization of Cu–Fe Alloy Obtained from Copper Slag and the Effect on Form of Copper in Alloy

by Baojing Zhang, Peizhong Feng and Tingan Zhang

Materials 2022, 15(15), 5110; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155110 - 22 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1277

Abstract

In order to realize the high-value utilization of copper slag, a process for preparing Cu–Fe alloy through the reduction of copper slag is proposed. The sulfur in the alloy exists in the form of matte inclusions, which is different from sulfur in molten [...] Read more.

In order to realize the high-value utilization of copper slag, a process for preparing Cu–Fe alloy through the reduction of copper slag is proposed. The sulfur in the alloy exists in the form of matte inclusions, which is different from sulfur in molten iron. The reaction of CaO with Cu₂S is difficult. It is necessary to add a reducing agent to promote desulfurization. To avoid the introduction of other elements, Fe–Mn and CaC₂ additions were used as desulfurizers for the desulfurization of Cu–Fe alloy. The thermodynamics of the desulfurization reaction were calculated and the experimental process was studied. It was found that the Gibbs free energy of desulfurization reactions was negative for Fe–Mn and that CaC₂ can reduce the sulfur in the alloy to 0.0013% and 0.0079%, respectively. The desulfurization process affected the shape of copper in the alloy. Part of copper in this alloy exists in the form of nano-copper spheres, and the size of the spheres is found to increase after desulfurization. Reducing agents can facilitate the desulfurization process of stable sulfides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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20 pages, 2827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leaching of Gold and Silver from a Complex Sulfide Concentrate in Copper-Tartrate-Thiosulfate Solutions

by Junnan Chen, Feng Xie, Wei Wang, Yan Fu and Jian Wang

Metals 2022, 12(7), 1152; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12071152 - 06 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2077

Abstract

The leaching behaviors of gold and silver from a complex sulfide concentrate in copper-tartrate-thiosulfate solutions were investigated in this paper. Experimental parameters, including temperature, initial pulp pH, and concentration of copper, tartrate, and thiosulfate, were systematically studied. The copper-tartrate-thiosulfate leaching system exhibits promising [...] Read more.

The leaching behaviors of gold and silver from a complex sulfide concentrate in copper-tartrate-thiosulfate solutions were investigated in this paper. Experimental parameters, including temperature, initial pulp pH, and concentration of copper, tartrate, and thiosulfate, were systematically studied. The copper-tartrate-thiosulfate leaching system exhibits promising performance in dealing with the complex sulfide concentrate. Thiosulfate consumption could be greatly reduced due to the in-situ generation of thiosulfate derived from sulfur or disulfide ions. Increasing the temperature and concentrations of copper, tartrate, and thiosulfate can promote gold leaching. A low tartrate content and a moderate increase in temperature and copper and thiosulfate concentrations can accelerate silver leaching, but a higher temperature or copper content may depress silver extraction. A suitable pulp pH is critical for gold and silver leaching in copper-tartrate-thiosulfate solutions. An extraction of 74.50% Au and 36.33% Ag was obtained with the direct leaching of the concentrate, while the percentages can be significantly increased up to 82.60% and 70.38%, respectively, when leaching the calcine following the oxidative roasting pretreatment. The recycling of leaching solutions demonstrates that a suitable free tartrate content is of great significance in maintaining the stability of the novel system. As an alternative to the traditional cyanide or copper-ammonia-thiosulfate leaching processes, the copper-tartrate-thiosulfate leaching system provides an environmentally friendly, nontoxic, and relatively low-cost method for gold and silver leaching from ores or concentrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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11 pages, 3013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Smelting Time on Vanadium and Titanium Distribution Behavior and Slag Viscosity in HIsmelt

by Shushi Zhang, Peng Hu, Jiating Rao, Zhenyang Wang, Yanbing Zong and Jianliang Zhang

Metals 2022, 12(6), 1019; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12061019 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1924

Abstract

HIsmelt is well suited for smelting vanadium–titanium magnetite due to its flexibility in feedstock selection and tolerance to high viscosity slag, compared with the blast furnace. In this work, the effect of smelting time on the distribution behavior and recovery rates of vanadium [...] Read more.

HIsmelt is well suited for smelting vanadium–titanium magnetite due to its flexibility in feedstock selection and tolerance to high viscosity slag, compared with the blast furnace. In this work, the effect of smelting time on the distribution behavior and recovery rates of vanadium and titanium in HIsmelt smelting of vanadium–titanium magnetite was investigated by experiment for the first time. The relationship between slag viscosity and temperature at different smelting times was further revealed by thermodynamic calculations. The experimental results show that extending the smelting time increases the FeO content in the slag, the L_V rose from 0.66 to 5.02, the L_Ti declined from 206.90 to 114.86, the shorter smelting time is favorable for increasing the recovery ratio of vanadium and titanium in metal and slag. In addition, slag viscosity decreases with increasing smelting time. The precipitation of high melting point titania spinel and CaTiO₃ phases is responsible for the significant increase in slag viscosity at 1300 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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17 pages, 4635 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recovery of Zinc and Iron from Steel Mill Dust—An Overview of Available Technologies

by Yang Xue, Xiansheng Hao, Xiaoming Liu and Na Zhang

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4127; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124127 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3618

Abstract

The global shortage of zinc mines makes the extraction of zinc from zinc-containing wastes a hot research topic. Most kinds of steel mill dust (SMD) cannot be directly returned to the ironmaking and steelmaking processes due to their zinc content. A large amount [...] Read more.

The global shortage of zinc mines makes the extraction of zinc from zinc-containing wastes a hot research topic. Most kinds of steel mill dust (SMD) cannot be directly returned to the ironmaking and steelmaking processes due to their zinc content. A large amount of SMD produced during steelmaking has become a major challenge for steel plants due to environmental pollution, health issues and land scarcity. Lots of processes for recovering metals from SMD have been developed to comprehensively utilize them and solve these environmental problems. Zinc in SMD can be recovered by these technologies, and the residue can be used as raw material for ironmaking. In this work, the sources and characteristics of SMD from different processes were analyzed firstly. Then, the mechanisms of physical, hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical and pyrometallurgy–hydrometallurgy combined processes for SMD disposal are presented, and these methods are compared in terms of energy consumption, process complexity and industrial application. Finally, suggestions and prospects for utilization of SMD are put forward. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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16 pages, 1465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Determination of the Conversion Rate of Molten White Metal by Supplying Individual Air Bubbles

by Maximiliano F. Roa-Jofré, Víctor R. Parra-Sánchez, Gonzalo A. Reyes-Alcántara, Eugenia A. Araneda-Hernández, Eduardo R. Balladares-Varela, Roberto A. Parra-Figueroa and Camila V. Mora-Vilches

Metals 2022, 12(6), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12060980 - 07 Jun 2022

Viewed by 1458

Abstract

The conversion of copper sulfide mattes lacks fundamental kinetic information for understanding the process. This work presents the results of the experimental measurement of the rate of oxidation of molten white metal by supplying individual air bubbles. The bubbles were characterized from information [...] Read more.

The conversion of copper sulfide mattes lacks fundamental kinetic information for understanding the process. This work presents the results of the experimental measurement of the rate of oxidation of molten white metal by supplying individual air bubbles. The bubbles were characterized from information collected during the experiments and through theoretical and empirical correlations. Conversion tests were carried out at different temperature conditions and injection dynamics of the oxidizing gas. The results indicate that the conversion is controlled by the transport of oxygen into the bubble. A dependency between the characteristics of the injector and the shape, size and surface of the bubbles was identified. The oxidation rate of the white metal depended on the characteristics of the bubbles and the oxygen available for conversion. The results of this research provide relevant information to improve the operation of industrial conversion furnaces by controlling gas injection through the tuyeres. The criterion for improving conversion systems is the balance between the retention of the bubbles in the molten white metal and their size, such that the availability of oxygen for the conversion is guaranteed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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11 pages, 1266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Extraction Performance of Vanadium (V) from Aqueous Solution by Octyl-Imidazole Ionic Liquids Extractants

by Jingui He, Wenju Tao and Guozhen Dong

Metals 2022, 12(5), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050854 - 17 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

It is worth it to explore the extraction performance for vanadium by the imidazole ionic liquids. The extraction of vanadium (V) was studied using [Omim]Cl, [Omim]Br, and [Omim][BF₄] as extractants. The effects of various diluents, equilibrium time, extraction temperature, and anion [...] Read more.

It is worth it to explore the extraction performance for vanadium by the imidazole ionic liquids. The extraction of vanadium (V) was studied using [Omim]Cl, [Omim]Br, and [Omim][BF₄] as extractants. The effects of various diluents, equilibrium time, extraction temperature, and anion species were investigated. The structure-activity relationship of vanadium and ILs was discussed by calculating the lattice energy of ILs based on the Glasser theory and the volume of anions. The results show that n-pentanol is the optimum diluent. Under the extraction conditions of an equilibrium time of 60 s and extraction temperature of 25 °C, the extraction rates of V (V) by [Omim]Cl, [Omim]Br, and [Omim][BF₄] reached 97.93%, 96.59%, and 87.01%, respectively. Furthermore, based on the Glasser theory, the lattice energy of ionic liquids decreased in the order [Omim]Cl > [Omim]Br > [Omim]BF₄. The volume of the anions increased in the order Cl⁻ < Br⁻ < BF₄⁻ < HVO₄²⁻. The extraction rate of V (V) depended on the size of the anions and the strength of the interaction between the anion and imidazolium cation. The results of counterevidence experiments verified the larger the anion volume, the easier it is to combine with cation in the organic phase, and the lattice energy of extracted compound is lower. The statistical analysis showed that the effect of the equilibrium time and temperature were not significant in the model, and the anions species showed a significant effect on the extraction efficiency of V (V). Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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12 pages, 2547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mass Transfer of Phosphorus Based on New Hot-Metal Dephosphorization Kinetic Model

by Guobin Sun and Xiaodong Xiang

Metals 2022, 12(5), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050751 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1381

Abstract

To investigate mass transfer of phosphorus in hot-metal dephosphorization process, it is necessary to reduce the deviation of traditional dephosphorization models in fitting accuracy. According to the change in hot-metal phosphorus content during dephosphorization, a new dephosphorization model was established by introducing the [...] Read more.

To investigate mass transfer of phosphorus in hot-metal dephosphorization process, it is necessary to reduce the deviation of traditional dephosphorization models in fitting accuracy. According to the change in hot-metal phosphorus content during dephosphorization, a new dephosphorization model was established by introducing the concept of “dynamic relative area”. With the help of literature data and comparative analysis of the new and old models, the rationality of the new model was verified. On this basis, in order to reveal the effects of CaO and its derivatives on mass transfer of phosphorus, based on the dephosphorization effect of Fe_tO–CaO–SiO₂–CaCl₂ slags on high-phosphorus hot metal at 1673 K (1400 °C), the mass transfer process of phosphorus was investigated by calculating, analyzing, and discussing the overall mass transfer coefficients of phosphorus using CaO, Ca(OH)₂, and CaCO₃ with equal molar amount as fixatives (slag formers) in dephosphorizer respectively. The results show that the overall mass transfer coefficients of phosphorus under the action of Ca(OH)₂ and CaCO₃ are 0.0216 cm/s and 0.0363 cm/s, respectively, which are significantly lower than 0.0840 cm/s under the action of CaO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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14 pages, 3026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Reduction Stripping Kinetics of Ce⁴⁺ Using a Constant Interfacial Area Cell with Laminar Flow

by Jingui He, Yong Li, Wenju Tao and Guozhen Dong

Metals 2022, 12(4), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040664 - 13 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1299

Abstract

The reduction stripping kinetics of Ce⁴⁺ by HEH/EHP was studied by a constant interfacial area cell with laminar flow. The effects of stirring speed, temperature, specific interfacial area, Ce⁴⁺ concentration in the organic phase, free extractant concentration in the organic phase, [...] Read more.

The reduction stripping kinetics of Ce⁴⁺ by HEH/EHP was studied by a constant interfacial area cell with laminar flow. The effects of stirring speed, temperature, specific interfacial area, Ce⁴⁺ concentration in the organic phase, free extractant concentration in the organic phase, HCl concentration, and H₂O₂ concentration on the stripping rate were investigated. The control mode and control steps of stripping process were judged. The kinetic equation of stripping was derived. The mechanism of stripping process was discussed. The results show that the stripping process is controlled by both diffusion and interfacial chemical reaction. The apparent activation energy E_a was calculated using Arrhenius’s formula. The kinetic equation of Ce⁴⁺ reduction stripping is R = k[Ce⁴⁺]_(o)^1.08[HEH/EHP]_(o)^−1.03[H⁺]_(a)^0.99[H₂O₂]_(a)^0.53, and the apparent rate constant k is 10^−3.66 (mol^−0.57·L^0.57)/min. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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29 pages, 1822 KiB

Open AccessReview

Behavior of As/As_xS_y in Neutral and Oxidizing Atmospheres at High Temperatures—An Overview

by Kristhobal Castro, Eduardo Balladares, Oscar Jerez, Manuel Pérez-Tello and Álvaro Aracena

Metals 2022, 12(3), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030457 - 08 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2177

Abstract

The reaction mechanisms in As and As-S systems during their oxidation and/or thermal decomposition are complex to describe due to the physicochemical characteristics of arsenic and its sulfides; the information highlighted in the literature was analyzed and correlated to determinate the predominant phases [...] Read more.

The reaction mechanisms in As and As-S systems during their oxidation and/or thermal decomposition are complex to describe due to the physicochemical characteristics of arsenic and its sulfides; the information highlighted in the literature was analyzed and correlated to determinate the predominant phases and reaction mechanisms during the thermal decomposition and oxidation of arsenic, in its elemental form and in sulfurate phases. As a result of this analysis, it was determined that the predominant phases are mainly composed of allotropies of arsenic, sulfides, and dimers. In addition, reaction mechanisms are provided that describe the behavior of arsenic and its sulfides during its thermal decomposition and oxidation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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11 pages, 4614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Reduction of Partially Oxidized Cauliflower-like Copper Powder by Hydrogen

by Juan An, Gang Xie, Wentang Xia, Xiaoli Yuan, Kai Liu, Hao An and Hongdan Wang

Metals 2022, 12(3), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12030413 - 26 Feb 2022

Viewed by 1708

Abstract

The copper powder produced by electrolysis has a dendritic structure, which gives it excellent green strength as a raw material for producing powder metallurgical components. Yet its large specific surface makes it susceptible to oxidation. Although the oxidation tends to occur only on [...] Read more.

The copper powder produced by electrolysis has a dendritic structure, which gives it excellent green strength as a raw material for producing powder metallurgical components. Yet its large specific surface makes it susceptible to oxidation. Although the oxidation tends to occur only on the surface, it still needs to be reduced. The partially oxidized cauliflower-like copper powder was reduced by hydrogen in this paper. Internal diffusion was found as the rate controlling step for the hydrogen reduction reaction, in which the apparent activation energy was determined to be 14.18 kJ/mol using the Arrhenius-based expression for the diffusion coefficient. Controlling copper powder particles were still compact after reduction, and the tips of dendrite arms became round and smooth. The apparent density decreased after reduction, but excess temperature led to sintering, and as a result, increased apparent density of metallic powder. Therefore, lower reduction temperature and appropriately long reduction times yielded better apparent density. These research results can provide reference for metallic powder plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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24 pages, 834 KiB

Open AccessReview

Copper Mineral Leaching Mathematical Models—A Review

by Manuel Saldaña, Edelmira Gálvez, Pedro Robles, Jonathan Castillo and Norman Toro

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1757; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051757 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3673

Abstract

Mineral leaching is the key unit operation in metallurgical processes and corresponds to the dissolution of metals. The study of leaching is carried out in many areas, such as geology, agriculture and metallurgy. This paper provides an introduction to the theoretical background regarding [...] Read more.

Mineral leaching is the key unit operation in metallurgical processes and corresponds to the dissolution of metals. The study of leaching is carried out in many areas, such as geology, agriculture and metallurgy. This paper provides an introduction to the theoretical background regarding the mathematical modelling of the leaching process of copper minerals, establishing an overall picture of the scientific literature on technological developments and the generation of representative mathematical and theoretical models, and indicating the challenges and potential contributions of comprehensive models representing the dynamics of copper mineral leaching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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18 pages, 8001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrothermal Separation of Titanium Vanadium and Chromium from a Pregnant Oxalic Acid Leachate

by Zihui Dong, Jie Zhang and Baijun Yan

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1538; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041538 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1554

Abstract

The separation of titanium, vanadium and chromium in vanadium slag (VS) is a difficult problem restricting the comprehensive utilization of VS. This paper presents the first study on the separation of titanium, vanadium and chromium from oxalic acid leachate of VS. Firstly, the [...] Read more.

The separation of titanium, vanadium and chromium in vanadium slag (VS) is a difficult problem restricting the comprehensive utilization of VS. This paper presents the first study on the separation of titanium, vanadium and chromium from oxalic acid leachate of VS. Firstly, the separation of titanium from the leachate by hydrothermal method was studied. The results show that more than 99% of titanium in the leachate was precipitated in the form of spherical anatase TiO₂ with the purity of 95.7%. Then, the extraction separation of vanadium and chromium from the titanium-free filtrate by three-stage extraction of acidified N235 extractant and four-stage stripping of HCl solution was investigated. The extraction mechanism was identified as the anion exchange reaction between acidified N235 extractant and vanadium and chromium complex anions, which were further stripped by HCl solution in the stripping process. After obtaining the concentrated and purified stripping solution containing vanadium and chromium, the separation of vanadium and chromium from the stripping solution by hydrothermal method was studied, and the product was mainly composed of VO₂ and Cr₂O₃. This process provides an idea for the comprehensive utilization of titanium, vanadium and chromium in oxalic acid system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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11 pages, 3227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of Magnesium and Nickel from Nickel-Rich Serpentine with Sulfation Roasting and Water Leaching

by Xiyun Yang, Lingyu Gao, Yulou Wu, Yingli Chen and Lirong Tong

Metals 2022, 12(2), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020318 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2120

Abstract

Magnesium and nickel were recovered from nickel-rich serpentine through sulfation roasting and water leaching. The factors affecting the extraction percentages of Mg and Ni were discussed. Under the conditions of the ratio of acid to ore of 0.8:1 and roasting temperature of 650 [...] Read more.

Magnesium and nickel were recovered from nickel-rich serpentine through sulfation roasting and water leaching. The factors affecting the extraction percentages of Mg and Ni were discussed. Under the conditions of the ratio of acid to ore of 0.8:1 and roasting temperature of 650 °C for 120 min, 91.6% of Mg and 88.7% of Ni but only 4.8% of Fe were extracted. The roasting kinetics of Mg and Ni were investigated. The results showed that the roasting stage was governed by internal diffusion in the temperature range of 350–650 °C, and the activation energy of nickel and magnesium were different in the time ranges of 0–30 min and 60–120 min, with 17.45 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (0–30 min) and 14.12 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (60–120 min) for magnesium and 15.48 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (0–30 min) and 12.46 kJ⋅mol⁻¹ (60–120 min) for nickel. The kinetic equations were obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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16 pages, 3512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flocculation of Clay-Based Tailings: Differences of Kaolin and Sodium Montmorillonite in Salt Medium

by Steven Nieto, Norman Toro, Pedro Robles, Edelmira Gálvez, Sandra Gallegos and Ricardo I. Jeldres

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031156 - 02 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3973

Abstract

Complex gangues and low-quality waters are a concern for the mining industries, particularly in water shortage areas, where the closure of hydric circuits and reduction in water use are essential to maintain the economic and environmental sustainability of mineral processing. This study analyzes [...] Read more.

Complex gangues and low-quality waters are a concern for the mining industries, particularly in water shortage areas, where the closure of hydric circuits and reduction in water use are essential to maintain the economic and environmental sustainability of mineral processing. This study analyzes the phenomena involved in the water recovery stage, such as sedimentation of clay-based tailings flocculated with anionic polyelectrolyte in industrial water and seawater. Flocculation–sedimentation batch tests were performed to ascertain the aggregate size distribution, the hindered settling rate, and the structure of flocs expressed through their fractal dimension and density. The aggregates’ properties were characterized by the Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM) and Particle Vision Microscope (PVM) techniques. The impact of the type of water depends on the type of clay that constitutes the suspension. For quartz/kaolin, the highest performance was obtained in industrial water, with bigger aggregates and faster settling rates. However, the tailings composed of quartz/Na-montmorillonite reversed this trend. The type of water impacted the efficiency of primary-particle aggregation. The trials in industrial water generated a portion of non-flocculated particles, which was observed through a bimodal distribution in the unweighted chord-length distribution. This behavior was not observed in seawater, where a perceptible fraction of non-flocculated particles was not found. The additional cationic bonds that offer seawater favor finer primary-particle agglomeration for all tailings types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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12 pages, 3055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Molybdenite Floatability: Effect of Clays and Seawater

by Catalina Soto, Norman Toro, Sandra Gallegos, Edelmira Gálvez, Aurora Robledo-Cabrera, Ricardo I. Jeldres, Matías Jeldres, Pedro Robles and Alejandro López-Valdivieso

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031136 - 01 Feb 2022

Viewed by 1646

Abstract

Current challenges in froth flotation are the presence of complex gangues and the use of low-quality waters, such as seawater. In this scenario, the recovery of molybdenum minerals is difficult, mainly due to the hydrophobic faces’ physicochemical changes. In the present study, the [...] Read more.

Current challenges in froth flotation are the presence of complex gangues and the use of low-quality waters, such as seawater. In this scenario, the recovery of molybdenum minerals is difficult, mainly due to the hydrophobic faces’ physicochemical changes. In the present study, the natural floatability of pure molybdenite was analyzed by using microflotation assays, and hydrophobicity was measured by performing contact-angle measurements. The impact of two clays, kaolin (non-swelling) and Na-montmorillonite (swelling), was studied. The behavior in freshwater and seawater at pH 8 was compared, considering the current condition of the Cu/Mo mining industries, which use seawater in their operations. The presence of clays lowered the natural floatability of molybdenite precisely because they adhere to the surface and reduce its contact angle. However, the intensity with which they cause this phenomenon depends on the type of water and clay. Kaolin strongly adheres to the valuable mineral in both freshwater and seawater. For its part, Na-montmorillonite does it with greater intensity in a saline medium, but in freshwater, a high concentration of phyllosilicate is required to reduce the hydrophobicity of molybdenite. The clays’ adherence was validated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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17 pages, 3961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing Magnesium within Seawater Used in Mineral Processing to Improve Water Recovery and Rheological Properties When Dewatering Clay-Based Tailings

by Matías Jeldres, Norman Toro, Sandra Gallegos, Pedro Robles, Iván Salazar, Phillip D. Fawell and Ricardo I. Jeldres

Polymers 2022, 14(2), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020339 - 16 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1917

Abstract

In areas where access to water for mineral processing is limited, the direct use of seawater in processing has been considered as an alternative to the expense of its desalination. However, efficient flotation of copper sulfides from non-valuable phases is best achieved at [...] Read more.

In areas where access to water for mineral processing is limited, the direct use of seawater in processing has been considered as an alternative to the expense of its desalination. However, efficient flotation of copper sulfides from non-valuable phases is best achieved at a pH > 10.5, and raising the pH of seawater leads to magnesium precipitates that adversely affect subsequent tailings dewatering. Seawater pre-treatment with lime can precipitate the majority of magnesium present, with these solids then being removed by filtration. To understand how such treatment may aid tailings dewatering, treated seawater (TSw) was mixed with raw seawater (Rsw) at different ratios, analyzing the impact on the flocculated settling rate, aggregate size as measured by focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM), and vane yield stress for two synthetic clay-based tailings. A higher proportion of Tsw (10 mg/L Mg²⁺) led to larger aggregates and higher settling rates at a fixed dosage, with FBRM suggesting that higher calcium concentrations in Tsw may also favor fines coagulation. The yield stress of concentrated suspensions formed after flocculation decreased with higher proportions of Tsw, a consequence of lower flocculant demand and the reduced presence of precipitates; while the latter is a minor phase by mass, their high impact on rheology reflects a small particle size. Reducing magnesium concentrations in seawater in advance of use in processing offers advantages in the water return from thickening and subsequent underflow transport. However, this may not require complete removal, with blending Tsw and Rsw an option to obtain acceptable industrial performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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14 pages, 2800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Terephthalaldehyde–Phenolic Resins as a Solid-Phase Extraction System for the Recovery of Rare-Earth Elements

by Ruth Oye Auke, Guilhem Arrachart, Romain Tavernier, Ghislain David and Stéphane Pellet-Rostaing

Polymers 2022, 14(2), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020311 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2357

Abstract

Rare-earth elements (REEs) are involved in most high technology devices and have become critical for many countries. The progress of processes for the extraction and recovery of REEs is therefore essential. Liquid–solid extraction methods are an attractive alternative to the conventional solvent extraction [...] Read more.

Rare-earth elements (REEs) are involved in most high technology devices and have become critical for many countries. The progress of processes for the extraction and recovery of REEs is therefore essential. Liquid–solid extraction methods are an attractive alternative to the conventional solvent extraction process used for the separation and/or purification of REEs. For this purpose, a solid-phase extraction system was investigated for the extraction and valorization of REEs. Ion-exchange resins were synthesized involving the condensation of terephthalaldehyde with resorcinol under alkaline conditions. The terephthalaldehyde, which is a non-hazardous aromatic dialdehyde, was used as an alternative to formaldehyde that is toxic and traditionally involved to prepare phenolic ion-exchange resins. The resulting formaldehyde-free resole-type phenolic resins were characterized and their ion-exchange capacity was investigated in regard to the extraction of rare-earth elements. We herein present a promising formaldehyde and phenol-free as a potential candidate for solid–liquid extraction REE with a capacity higher than 50 mg/g and the possibility to back-extract the REEs by a striping step using a 2 M HNO₃ solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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13 pages, 4172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Recycling Route for Spent Li-Ion Batteries

by Eliana G. Pinna, Norman Toro, Sandra Gallegos and Mario H. Rodriguez

Materials 2022, 15(1), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010044 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2994

Abstract

In this work, a recycling route for spent Li-ion batteries (LIBs) was developed. For this, the recovery of the metal content in both electrodes (anode and cathode) was investigated. Based on these results, an economic analysis of this recycling process was carried out. [...] Read more.

In this work, a recycling route for spent Li-ion batteries (LIBs) was developed. For this, the recovery of the metal content in both electrodes (anode and cathode) was investigated. Based on these results, an economic analysis of this recycling process was carried out. The obtained results showed that more than 90% of the material contained in both electrodes was recycled. The dissolution with acetic acid of the metals present in the active cathodic material is thermodynamically viable and the addition of a reducing agent such as hydrogen peroxide improved the spontaneity of the reaction. Dissolutions close to 100% for Li and Co were obtained. In addition, it was determined that the synthesis of lithium and cobalt valuable compounds was viable from the leach liquor, recovering approximately 90% of Co as cobalt oxalate, and 92% of Li as lithium carbonate. Furthermore, carbon graphite and Cu were fully recovered (100%) from the anodes. Finally, the results of the economic analysis showed that the recovered products have a high commercial value and industrial interest, providing an environmentally and economically viable process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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13 pages, 5784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selective Etching of Sr-Modified and Directionally Solidified Industrial Al–Si Eutectic Alloys for Fabricating Fibrous Eutectic Si

by Jianjun Gao, Wei Gu, Fenfei Zhang, Haibin Geng, Jianhua Zhong, Ligang Yao, Zhilong Zhao and Junning Wang

Metals 2021, 11(12), 1974; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11121974 - 08 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2092

Abstract

In order to fabricate fibrous eutectic Si, the selective etching of industrial Al–Si eutectic alloys directionally solidified at different growth rates and modified by different amounts of Sr was studied. Flake eutectic and fibrous Si were obtained by selective etching of non-modified, Sr-modified [...] Read more.

In order to fabricate fibrous eutectic Si, the selective etching of industrial Al–Si eutectic alloys directionally solidified at different growth rates and modified by different amounts of Sr was studied. Flake eutectic and fibrous Si were obtained by selective etching of non-modified, Sr-modified or directionally solidified Al–Si eutectic alloys. The optimal amount of Sr for fabricating branching eutectic Si was 0.04–0.07%. Through directional solidification with a high enough growth rate (more than 200 μm/s), lamellar eutectic Si transforms to fibrous eutectic Si for use in non-modified Al–Si eutectic alloys. The potentiodynamic polarization and cyclic voltammetry methods were used to test the corrosion behavior of non-modified and Sr-modified Al–Si eutectic alloys. With a constant potential of 0.5 V in HCl solution, non-modified Al–Si eutectic alloys displayed initial pitting corrosion and subsequent spalling corrosion, and 0.04% Sr-modified samples displayed uniform pitting corrosion. Compared with non-modified Al–Si eutectic alloys, Sr-modified samples displayed better corrosion resistance with lower current density and shallower pit depth during the same etching conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Metallurgical Extractive Processes)

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