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Processes
Special Issues
Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application
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Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 March 2024) | Viewed by 9924

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Yanzhong Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
Interests: thermophysical process of refrigeration and cryogenics; heat and mass transfer in cryogenic systems; thermal management for space cryogenic propellants
Dr. Yuan Ma

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
Interests: orbital cryogenic fluid management (CFM); thermal management for liquid rockets with cryogenic propellants; storage and transportation of liquid hydrogen

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Hydrogen energy, as one of the most promising clean energy sources, has been playing an important role in the world energy arena. With the growing emphasis on hydrogen production, storage, transportation and application technologies, related technologies for liquid hydrogen are gaining additional interest throughout the energy engineering community. Liquid hydrogen has significant advantages in terms of the storage density and purity of hydrogen energy, although liquid hydrogen may require special technologies in production, transportation, storage and application. In the past several decades, liquid hydrogen was mainly used as rocket propellant, and its popularization in civil hydrogen energy would be further promoted by the development of production and application technologies for liquid hydrogen.

This Special Issue on “Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application” aims to attract state-of-the-art research and review articles on the development and application of liquid hydrogen. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

  1. Hydrogen liquefaction process;
  2. Preparation technologies of liquid hydrogen;
  3. Key equipment for liquid hydrogen preparation;
  4. Insulation and storage technologies for liquid hydrogen;
  5. Flow and transportation technologies for liquid hydrogen;
  6. Mechanism of two-phase flow and heat transfer of cryogenic hydrogen;
  7. Precooling of refueling technologies for liquid hydrogen;
  8. Measurement and control technology for liquid hydrogen;
  9. Thermal insulation of liquid hydrogen equipment.

Prof. Dr. Yanzhong Li
Dr. Yuan Ma
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • hydrogen liquefaction
  • preparation method
  • two-phase flow
  • heat transfer
  • thermal insulation
  • liquid hydrogen storage
  • precooling
  • refueling

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 5728 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation on Pressure-Control Characteristics of Liquid Hydrogen Tank Based on Active and Passive Thermodynamic Venting System Technology
by Zhenjun Zhou, Jun Wu, Shaohua Zhang, Mengmeng Gong and Xin Liu
Processes 2023, 11(6), 1831; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11061831 - 16 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 983
Abstract
Pressure control while minimizing the mass loss of liquid hydrogen is one of the key technologies required for the long-term storage of cryogenic propellants in microgravity in space, and the use of a thermodynamic venting system (TVS) has been considered as an effective [...] Read more.
Pressure control while minimizing the mass loss of liquid hydrogen is one of the key technologies required for the long-term storage of cryogenic propellants in microgravity in space, and the use of a thermodynamic venting system (TVS) has been considered as an effective means to solve this problem. In order to investigate the characteristics of pressure control by TVS technology, a cryogenic test platform for liquid hydrogen that integrated active and passive TVS was set up, a spray-bar exchanger and vapor-cooling screen were used to eliminate thermal stratification and realize the reuse of cold energy. Ten pressure-control tests using passive TVS (PTVS), mixing and active TVS (ATVS) strategies with heating powers of 0 W, 40 W and 80 W, were carried out. The single cycle time under different strategies, the effect of heating power on single cycle time, and the comparison of volume of the venting GH2 in different tests were analyzed in detail, the research showed that TVS technology could accurately control the pressure of cryogenic storage tanks within a predetermined range. An additional evaporation test was carried out using a direct venting method to compare with the above PTVS and ATVS tests, and the results showed that the venting volume of GH2 in unit time by the direct-venting method was close to that of the PTVS test with the heating power of 40 W, and the venting volume in unit time by the ATVS strategy was decreased by 87.3% compared to the direct-venting test. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application)
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13 pages, 4822 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on Boiling Vaporization of Liquid Hydrogen in Nonspreading Pool
by Zhenhua Xie, Shenyin Yang, Shuangshuang Zhao, Xing Liu, Mingshu Bi and Jingjie Ren
Processes 2023, 11(5), 1415; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11051415 - 06 May 2023
Viewed by 1930
Abstract
Research on the boiling vaporization process of liquid hydrogen spilled on solid ground is very important for the safety risk assessment of liquid hydrogen. Since the main source of the heat flux in the vaporization process comes from the ground, the heat flux [...] Read more.
Research on the boiling vaporization process of liquid hydrogen spilled on solid ground is very important for the safety risk assessment of liquid hydrogen. Since the main source of the heat flux in the vaporization process comes from the ground, the heat flux from the ground into the liquid pool should be studied in-depth. In this paper, the boiling vaporization process of liquid hydrogen on the surface of concrete is studied. The analysis of the boiling process of a liquid pool is conducted by utilizing the boiling curve and historical temperature data collected in close proximity to the surface of the concrete. It was found that the boiling regime of a liquid hydrogen pool on the concrete surface presents non-uniformity, and the film boiling of liquid hydrogen on the concrete surface ended earlier than the results calculated by boiling regime correlations. When the measured temperature in the experiment indicates a transition from film boiling to the transition boiling, the temperature difference between the thermocouple temperature measured at a depth of 2 mm and the boiling point of liquid hydrogen is 130 K higher than the predicted superheat of the minimum heat flux (MHF). In the later stage of the experiment, the average relative error between the experimental value of the vaporization rate and the predicted value of the model is 7.48%. This research advances the understanding of heat transfer between concrete ground and a liquid hydrogen pool. In addition, the experimental data obtained in this study contributes to improving the source term model for safety analysis of liquid hydrogen spills. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application)
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19 pages, 2968 KiB  
Article
Feasibility Study on Space Reorientation for Liquid Hydrogen Tanks by Means of Evaporated Exhaust Gas
by Jiajia Liang, Yuan Ma, Yanzhong Li, Lei Wang and Xiaozhong Luo
Processes 2023, 11(4), 1278; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11041278 - 20 Apr 2023
Viewed by 995
Abstract
A thermal equilibrium model is established to investigate the heat leak of a space liquid hydrogen tank under different thermal adiabatic structures. The feasibility of the common bulkhead tank in realizing thrust or rotation reorientation by evaporated exhaust gas has been systematically studied. [...] Read more.
A thermal equilibrium model is established to investigate the heat leak of a space liquid hydrogen tank under different thermal adiabatic structures. The feasibility of the common bulkhead tank in realizing thrust or rotation reorientation by evaporated exhaust gas has been systematically studied. The results indicate that the space radiation heat leak is the primary heat leak in spray-on foam insulation (SOFI) adiabatic tanks. However, the common bulkhead heat leak is dominant in the tank with multilayer insulation (MLI) or self-evaporation vapor cooled shield (VCS). For the continuous stable adiabatic exhaust, the tank with SOFI (over 114 W/m2) could realize reorientation with the acceleration of over 5.5 × 10−4 m/s2 generated by the exhaust. Meanwhile, the tank that adopted MLI or VCS (below 18 W/m2) struggled to achieve gas–liquid separation with the acceleration below 8.7 × 10−5 m/s2 generated by exhausting. The rotational angular velocity of the tank through exhausting increases with the fill level dropping and exhaust pressure rising. Reorientation by a TVS intermittent exhaust may be possible in some cases, with sufficient exhaust time. This study provides a theoretical basis for reorientation using the exhaust gas of liquid hydrogen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application)
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18 pages, 9672 KiB  
Article
Numerical Investigation on the Liquid Hydrogen Leakage and Protection Strategy
by Yangyiming Rong, Jianbin Peng, Jun Gao, Xiang Zhang, Xinkun Li, Xi Pan, Jianye Chen and Shunyi Chen
Processes 2023, 11(4), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11041173 - 11 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1604
Abstract
One of China’s ambitious hydrogen strategies over the past few years has been to promote fuel cells. A number of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) are currently being built in China to refuel hydrogen-powered automobiles. In this context, it is crucial to assess the [...] Read more.
One of China’s ambitious hydrogen strategies over the past few years has been to promote fuel cells. A number of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) are currently being built in China to refuel hydrogen-powered automobiles. In this context, it is crucial to assess the dangers of hydrogen leaking in HRSs. The present work simulated the liquid hydrogen (LH2) leakage with the goal of undertaking an extensive consequence evaluation of the LH2 leakage on an LH2 refueling station (LHRS). Furthermore, the utilization of an air curtain to prevent the diffusion of the LH2 leakage is proposed and the defending effect is studied accordingly. The results reveal that the Richardson number effectively explained the variation of plume morphology. Furthermore, different facilities have great influence on the gas cloud diffusion trajectory with the consideration of different leakage directions. The air curtain shows satisfactory prevention of the diffusion of the hydrogen plume. Studies show that with the increase in air volume (equivalent to wind speed) and the narrowing of the air curtain width (other factors remain unchanged), the maximum flammable distance of hydrogen was shortened. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application)
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13 pages, 3507 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Unsteady Heat Transfer in the Pre-Cooling Process of 300 m3 Liquid Hydrogen Tank
by Qiang Chen, Xiaoping Zhang, Xiaojing Yang, Lufeng Yang, Tianxiang Wang and Gang Lei
Processes 2023, 11(3), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030787 - 07 Mar 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1383
Abstract
A mathematical model for the pre-cooling process was established to solve the problems of the long pre-cooling time and uncertain parameters of cryogenic propellant tanks. The pre-cooling parameters of a 300 m3 liquid hydrogen tank at several cooling rates were calculated and [...] Read more.
A mathematical model for the pre-cooling process was established to solve the problems of the long pre-cooling time and uncertain parameters of cryogenic propellant tanks. The pre-cooling parameters of a 300 m3 liquid hydrogen tank at several cooling rates were calculated and analyzed. The results show that the liquid hydrogen flow required to pre-cool the gas in the tank, tank wall, accessories, and interlayer thermal insulation materials increases first and then decreases and that the liquid hydrogen flow needed to offset the heat leakage gradually increases with the temperature reduction. When the average cooling rate rose from 0.1 K/min to 1 K/min, the pre-cooling time was shortened from 2730 min to 273 min, and the consumption of liquid hydrogen decreased from 2115 kg to 2091 kg. Among the various heat loads, the inner tank wall and accessories consumed the most significant proportion of liquid hydrogen, accounting for 87.84% to 88.61%. The cooling capacity was derived from the liquid hydrogen’s evaporation and the cryogenic hydrogen gas’s heating process, of which the liquid hydrogen accounted for 23.00%. Considering the principle of safe operation, it is recommended that stepped pre-cooling in two or three stages based on the maximum cooling rate is conducted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application)
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12 pages, 2407 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling for Rapid Charging of Hydrogen Gas Vessel in Fuel Cell Vehicle
by Kaifeng Yuan, Hao Pan, Zhan Liu and Martin Andersson
Processes 2023, 11(2), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020476 - 04 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1546
Abstract
As a fuel for power generation, high-pressure hydrogen gas is widely used for transportation, and its efficient storage promotes the development of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). However, as the filling process takes such a short time, the maximum temperature in the storage tank [...] Read more.
As a fuel for power generation, high-pressure hydrogen gas is widely used for transportation, and its efficient storage promotes the development of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). However, as the filling process takes such a short time, the maximum temperature in the storage tank usually undergoes a rapid increase, which has become a thorny problem and poses great technical challenges to the steady operation of hydrogen FCVs. For security reasons, SAE J2601/ISO 15869 regulates a maximum temperature limit of 85 °C in the specifications for refillable hydrogen tanks. In this paper, a two-dimensional axisymmetric and a three-dimensional numerical model for fast charging of Type III, 35 MPa, and 70 MPa hydrogen vehicle cylinders are proposed in order to effectively evaluate the temperature rise within vehicle tanks. A modified standard k-ε turbulence model is utilized to simulate hydrogen gas charging. The equation of state for hydrogen gas is adopted with the thermodynamic properties taken from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) database, taking into account the impact of hydrogen gas’ compressibility. To validate the numerical model, three groups of hydrogen rapid refueling experimental data are chosen. After a detailed comparison, it is found that the simulated results calculated by the developed numerical model are in good agreement with the experimental results, with average temperature differences at the end time of 2.56 K, 4.08 K, and 4.3 K. The present study provides a foundation for in-depth investigations on the structural mechanics analysis of hydrogen gas vessels during fast refueling and may supply some technical guidance on the design of charging experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Hydrogen Production and Application)
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