Polysaccharides

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29 pages, 7650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reversible Metal Ion/Complex Binding to Chitin Controlled by Ligand, Redox, and Photochemical Reactions and Active Movement of Chitin on Aquatic Arthropods

by Stefan Fränzle and Felix Blind

Polysaccharides 2022, 3(3), 515-543; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides3030031 - 28 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1901

Abstract

There is strong adsorption of metal ions and their complexes to chitin, which depends on both the oxidation and complexation states of many of the said elements (whereas others display chemical reactions detectable via electrochemical methods while being retained by chitin); thus, ad- [...] Read more.

There is strong adsorption of metal ions and their complexes to chitin, which depends on both the oxidation and complexation states of many of the said elements (whereas others display chemical reactions detectable via electrochemical methods while being retained by chitin); thus, ad- and desorption at ambient water concentrations (often in the nMol/L range) are controlled by the presence and photochemical properties (concerning Eu and probably U and Ag) of mainly biogenic organic matter (both DOC and POC, and DON). With chitin forming the outer hull of mobile organisms (animals), this biopolymer is expected to take part in metal distribution in aquatic (limnetic and riverine) ecosystems. Having studied the attachment of many different elements to both crayfish and grafted (marine shrimp) chitin, with the highest accumulations observed in Bi, V, Ni, and LREEs, one should consider secondary biochemical transformations which take place at different water and sediment levels. After chitin had been embedded into sediment, methanogenesis (which requires Ni), Bi, and Sb biomethylations and photodesorption in the illuminated water column will occur if there are appropriate organics, causing the vertical separation of Eu from other REEs, at least during the daytime. Eutrophication will enhance both the production and especially the photooxidation rates of organics in water because phosphorylated sugars and lipids are formed quantitatively within min P, which enter water and undergo Eu-mediated photooxidation much more readily. Another biopolymer, gelatin, acts as an inert matrix-enhancing organic photooxidation product via Eu, producing chemical waves, indicating autocatalysis upon light impact. From the redox-related photodesorption of metal analytes from chitin, both sensors and devices for (light-assisted) electrochemical energy conversion are being developed by our workgroup. The electrochemical determination of adsorption thermodynamics on chitin is thus directly linked to its applications in environmental monitoring and technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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13 pages, 2094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Denaturazing Glucose Oxidase Immobilization onto Graphite Electrodes by Incubation in Chitosan Solutions

by Mireia Buaki-Sogó, Laura García-Carmona, Mayte Gil-Agustí, Marta García-Pellicer and Alfredo Quijano-López

Polysaccharides 2022, 3(2), 388-400; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides3020023 - 03 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2179

Abstract

In this work, glucose oxidase (GOx) has been immobilized onto graphite rod electrodes through an assisted-chitosan adsorption reaching an enzyme coverage of 4 nmol/cm². The direct and irreversible single adsorption of the Flavine Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor has been minimized by [...] Read more.

In this work, glucose oxidase (GOx) has been immobilized onto graphite rod electrodes through an assisted-chitosan adsorption reaching an enzyme coverage of 4 nmol/cm². The direct and irreversible single adsorption of the Flavine Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor has been minimized by electrode incubation in a chitosan (CH) solution containing the enzyme GOx. Chitosan keeps the enzyme structure and conformation due to electrostatic interactions preventing FAD dissociation from the protein envelope. Using chitosan, both the redox cofactor FAD and the protein envelope remain in the active form as demonstrated by the electrochemistry studies and the enzymatic activity in the electrochemical oxidation of glucose up to a concentration of 20 mM. The application of the modified electrodes for energy harvesting delivered a power density of 119 µW/cm² with a cell voltage of 0.3 V. Thus, chitosan presents a stabilizing effect for the enzyme conformation promoted by the confinement effect in the chitosan solution by electrostatic interactions. Additionally, it facilitated the electron transfer from the enzyme to the electrode due to the presence of embedded chitosan in the enzyme structure acting as an electrical wiring between the electrode and the enzyme (electron transfer rate constant 2.2 s⁻¹). This method involves advantages compared with previously reported chitosan immobilization methods, not only due to good stability of the enzyme, but also to the simplicity of the procedure that can be carried out even for not qualified technicians which enable their easy implementation in industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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9 pages, 2922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and In Vitro Cytotoxicity of Citrus sinensis Oil-Loaded Chitosan Electrostatic Complexes

by Antonio M. N. de Toledo, Adriana R. Machado and Leonor A. de Souza-Soares

Polysaccharides 2022, 3(2), 347-355; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides3020020 - 06 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1736

Abstract

Electrostatic complexes based on chitosan, lecithin, and sodium tripolyphosphate were produced and evaluated with respect to their encapsulation capacity and cytotoxicity. Physical chemical properties were determined by zeta potential values and size distributions. For encapsulation assays, the emulsification method was followed, and Citrus [...] Read more.

Electrostatic complexes based on chitosan, lecithin, and sodium tripolyphosphate were produced and evaluated with respect to their encapsulation capacity and cytotoxicity. Physical chemical properties were determined by zeta potential values and size distributions. For encapsulation assays, the emulsification method was followed, and Citrus senensis peel oil was utilized as volatile compound model. Morphology of complexes with oil incorporated was observed by scanning electron microscopy. The cytotoxicity of complexes was related to cell viability of zebrafish hepatocytes. The complexes produced presented positive Zeta potential values and size distributions dependent on the mass ratio between compounds. Higher concentrations of sodium tripolyphosphate promote significant changes (p < 0.05) in zeta values, which did not occur at smaller concentrations of the crosslinking agent. These complexes were able to encapsulate Citrus sinensis peel oil, with encapsulation efficiency higher than 50%. Cytotoxicity profiles showed that in a range of concentrations (0.1–100 μg/mL) studied, they did not promote cellular damage in zebrafish liver cells, being potential materials for food and pharmaceutical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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14 pages, 3781 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Chitosan and Collagen-Based Materials Enriched with Curcumin (Curcuma longa): Rheological and Morphological Characterization

by Eduardo P. Milan, Mirella Romanelli V. Bertolo, Virginia C. A. Martins, Stanislau Bogusz Junior and Ana Maria G. Plepis

Polysaccharides 2022, 3(1), 236-249; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides3010013 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2628

Abstract

In this study, chitosan and collagen (Ch: Col)-based materials containing curcumin (Cur) as a bioactive compound were developed for wound-healing purposes. The effects of incorporating curcumin and increasing its concentration on both the rheological properties of the formed solutions and the morphological and [...] Read more.

In this study, chitosan and collagen (Ch: Col)-based materials containing curcumin (Cur) as a bioactive compound were developed for wound-healing purposes. The effects of incorporating curcumin and increasing its concentration on both the rheological properties of the formed solutions and the morphological and thermal properties of the three-dimensional scaffolds obtained from them were evaluated. Rheology showed that the presence of curcumin resulted in solutions with a solid-like behavior (G’ > G″), higher collagen denaturation temperatures, and higher viscosities, favoring their use as biomaterials for wound healing. A greater cross-linking effect was observed at higher curcumin concentrations, possibly between the amino groups from both polymers and the hydroxyl and keto groups from the polyphenol. Such cross-linking was responsible for the delay in the onset of degradation of the scaffolds by 5 °C, as revealed by thermogravimetric analysis. Moreover, the pore diameter distribution profile of the scaffolds changed with increasing curcumin concentration; a greater number of pores with diameters between 40 and 60 µm was observed for the scaffold with the highest curcumin content (50 mg), which would be the most suitable for the proposed application. Thus, the materials developed in this study are presented as promising biomaterials for their biological evaluation in tissue regeneration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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10 pages, 3078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Property Modification of Collagen, Hyaluronic Acid, and Chitosan Films with the Neodymium Laser

by Sylwia Grabska-Zielińska and Alina Sionkowska

Polysaccharides 2022, 3(1), 178-187; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides3010008 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2368

Abstract

In this paper, surfaces of thin films prepared from blends of collagen, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan and modified by neodymium laser radiation were researched. To evaluate the laser beam effect on the surface structure, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging and infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) [...] Read more.

In this paper, surfaces of thin films prepared from blends of collagen, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan and modified by neodymium laser radiation were researched. To evaluate the laser beam effect on the surface structure, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging and infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) were employed. The results demonstrated that during laser treatment the specimens lost water due to the evaporation process. SEM images revealed some changes in the biopolymer films structure. After laser treatment, the micro-foam formation was observed on the biopolymeric films. The micro-foaming in films based on ternary blends was more extensive than in those made of a single biopolymer. The results of this study indicate that collagen, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan materials can be modified with laser treatment. Such treatment can be used for material modification for potential biomedical purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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22 pages, 3302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chitin as a Sorbent Superior to Other Biopolymers: Features and Applications in Environmental Research, Energy Conversion, and Understanding Evolution of Animals

by Felix Blind and Stefan Fränzle

Polysaccharides 2021, 2(4), 773-794; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides2040047 - 09 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2655

Abstract

Chitin is an effective sorbent which can be used in environmental monitoring, beyond obvious applications in withholding metal-containing pollutants from wastewater- or nuclear fuel reprocessing flows, since background levels in (purified) chitin are very low except for a few metals (Fe, Cu, Al, [...] Read more.

Chitin is an effective sorbent which can be used in environmental monitoring, beyond obvious applications in withholding metal-containing pollutants from wastewater- or nuclear fuel reprocessing flows, since background levels in (purified) chitin are very low except for a few metals (Fe, Cu, Al, Ti, and Zn). Since retention of M^x+ and their complexes on chitin depend on an oxidation state, and to a lesser extent the presence of possible ligands or co-ligands, partition between chitin samples exposed to sediment and those exposed to water can be changed by environmental factors such as local biota producing or absorbing/metabolizing effective ligands such as citrate or oxalate and by changes of redox potential. Thermodynamics are studied via log P, using calibration functions log P vs. 1/r or log P vs. Σσ (sum of Hammett parameters of ligand donor groups) for di- and trivalent elements not involved in biochemical activity (not even indirectly) and thus measuring “deviations” from expected values. These “deviations” can be due to input as a pollutant, biochemical use of certain elements, precipitation or (bio-induced reduction of SO₄²⁻ or CO₂) dissolution of solids in sediment. Biochemical processes which occur deep in sediment can be detected due to this effect. Data from grafted chitin (saturation within ≤ 10 min) and from outer surfaces of arthropods caught at the same site do agree well. Log P is more telling than total amounts retrieved. Future applications of these features of chitin are outlined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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13 pages, 1606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheological Characterization of the Influence of Pomegranate Peel Extract Addition and Concentration in Chitosan and Gelatin Coatings

by Mirella Romanelli Vicente Bertolo, Rafael Leme, Virginia da Conceição Amaro Martins, Ana Maria de Guzzi Plepis and Stanislau Bogusz Junior

Polysaccharides 2021, 2(3), 648-660; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides2030039 - 07 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2927

Abstract

In this study, the effects of an agro-industrial residue with active properties, pomegranate peel extract (PPE), were evaluated on the rheological properties of potential coatings based on chitosan (C) and gelatin (G). For this, rheological properties of the polymeric solutions were investigated in [...] Read more.

In this study, the effects of an agro-industrial residue with active properties, pomegranate peel extract (PPE), were evaluated on the rheological properties of potential coatings based on chitosan (C) and gelatin (G). For this, rheological properties of the polymeric solutions were investigated in relation to PPE concentration (2 or 4 mg PPE g⁻¹ solution), and to its incorporation order into the system (in C or in CG mixture). All solutions were more viscous than elastic (G″ > G′), and the change in PPE concentration had a greater influence accentuating the viscous character of the samples in which PPE was added to the CG mixture (CGPPE2 and CGPPE4). PPE addition to the CG mixture increased the angular frequency at the moduli crossover, indicating the formation of a more resistant polymeric network. This tendency was also observed in flow results, in which PPE addition decreased the pseudoplastic behavior of the solutions, due to a greater cross-linking between the polymers and the phenolic compounds. In general, all the studied solutions showed viscosities suitable for the proposed application, and it was possible to state the importance of standardizing the addition order of the components during the preparation of a coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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13 pages, 3976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control of Surface Properties of Hyaluronan/Chitosan Multilayered Coatings for Tumor Cell Capture

by Giulia G. Lima, João B. M. Rocha Neto, Hernandes Faustino de Carvalho and Marisa Masumi Beppu

Polysaccharides 2021, 2(2), 387-399; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides2020025 - 30 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2246

Abstract

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a slow-growing neoplasm that has, when diagnosed in its early stages, great chances of cure. During initial tumor development, current diagnostic methods fail to have the desired accuracy, thus, it is necessary to develop or improve current detection methods [...] Read more.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a slow-growing neoplasm that has, when diagnosed in its early stages, great chances of cure. During initial tumor development, current diagnostic methods fail to have the desired accuracy, thus, it is necessary to develop or improve current detection methods and prognostic markers for PCa. In this scenario, films composed of hyaluronic acid (HA) and chitosan (CHI) have demonstrated significant capture potential of prostate tumor cells (PC3 line), exploring HA as a CD44 receptor ligand and direct mediator in cell-film adhesion. Here, we present a strategy to control structural and cell adhesion properties of HA/CHI films based on film assembly conditions. Films were built via Layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition, where the pH conditions (3.0 and 5.0) and number of bilayers (3.5, 10.5, and 20.5) were controlled. The characterization of these films was carried out using profilometry, ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and contact angle measurements. Multilayer HA/CHI films produced at pH 3.0 gave optimum surface wettability and availability of free carboxyl groups. In turn, at pH 5.0, the coverings were thinner and presented a smoother surface. Films prepared with 3.5 bilayers showed greater tumor cell capture regardless of the pH condition, while films containing 10.5 and 20.5 bilayers presented a significant swelling process, which compromised their cell adhesion potential. This study shows that surface chemistry and morphology are critical factors for the development of biomaterials designed for several cell adhesion applications, such as rapid diagnostic, cell signaling, and biosensing mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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15 pages, 2329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical Properties of Chitosan from Two Commonly Reared Edible Cricket Species, and Its Application as a Hypolipidemic and Antimicrobial Agent

by Morgan Malm and Andrea M. Liceaga

Polysaccharides 2021, 2(2), 339-353; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides2020022 - 12 May 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3266

Abstract

Insect-derived chitin and chitosan have gained interest as alternative sources to that derived from crustaceans; however, little information is available on chitin from the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) and tropical banded cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus), two cricket species commonly reared in [...] Read more.

Insect-derived chitin and chitosan have gained interest as alternative sources to that derived from crustaceans; however, little information is available on chitin from the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) and tropical banded cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus), two cricket species commonly reared in the United States for human consumption. In this study, chitin was successfully isolated and purified from these two cricket species; using FTIR, chitins were found to be in alpha-crystalline form. Cricket chitosan was produced from both species with varying degrees of deacetylation (DDA) by varying alkaline conversion duration. G. sigillatus chitosan was larger (524 kDa) than A. domesticus chitosan (344 kDa). Both cricket chitosans showed similar (p > 0.05) lipid-binding capacity to that of shrimp chitosan. Both chitosans were as effective at inhibiting microbial growth of surrogate foodborne pathogens as the commercial shrimp chitosan. At a concentration of 0.50 mg/mL cricket chitosan, approximately 100% of Listeria innocua growth was inhibited, due to a contribution of both chitosan and the solvent-acetic acid. At the same concentration, growth of Escherichia coli was inhibited 90% by both cricket chitosan samples with ~80% DDA, where a decrease in the DDA led to decreased antimicrobial activity. However, varying the DDA had no effect on chitosan’s lipid-binding capacity. As more edible insects become a normalized protein source in our diet, the use of by-products, such as chitin and chitosan, derived from insect protein processing, show promising applications for the pharmaceutical and food industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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16 pages, 5894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conversion of Electrospun Chitosan into Chitin: A Robust Strategy to Tune the Properties of 2D Biomimetic Nanofiber Scaffolds

by Natalia Toncheva-Moncheva, Abdelhafid Aqil, Moreno Galleni and Christine Jérôme

Polysaccharides 2021, 2(2), 271-286; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides2020019 - 02 May 2021

Viewed by 2475

Abstract

New biomimetic micro- and nano-CsU-based fibrous scaffolds electrospun from solution containing high purity-medical grade chitosan (CsU) of fungus origin (CsU1, Mv ~174,000 and CsU2, 205,000, degree of deacetylation (DDA) ~65%) and polyethylene oxide (PEO, Mv ~ 900,000), in the presence of given amounts [...] Read more.

New biomimetic micro- and nano-CsU-based fibrous scaffolds electrospun from solution containing high purity-medical grade chitosan (CsU) of fungus origin (CsU1, Mv ~174,000 and CsU2, 205,000, degree of deacetylation (DDA) ~65%) and polyethylene oxide (PEO, Mv ~ 900,000), in the presence of given amounts of Triton X-100 (from 0.01 to 0.5 wt%) as surfactant were fabricated. We demonstrate that by carefully selecting compositions and surfactant levels, porous mats with CsU content up to 90% (at this molecular weight and DDA) were achieved. Remarkable long-term stability in water or phosphate buffer solution storage were obtained by developing post-electrospinning treatment allowing the complete elimination of the PEO from the CsU-fibers as demonstrated by TGA, DSC and ESEM analysis. Subsequent reacetylation procedure was applied to convert 2D biomimetic chitosan mats to chitin (CsE)-based ones while preserving the nanofiber structure. This innovative procedure allows tuning and modifying the thermal, mechanical properties and more importantly the biodegradation abilities (fast enzymatic biodegradation in some cases and slower on the others) of the prepared nanofibrous mats. The established reproducible method offers the unique advantage to modulate the membrane properties leading to stable 2D biomimetic CsU and/or chitin (CsE) scaffolds tailor-made for specific purposes in the field of tissue engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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Review

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12 pages, 1846 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polysaccharide Stalks in Didymosphenia geminata Diatom: Real World Applications and Strategies to Combat Its Spread

by Esther Somanader, Roshini Sreenivas, Golnoosh Siavash, Nicole Rodriguez, Tingxiao Gao, Hermann Ehrlich and M. Azizur Rahman

Polysaccharides 2022, 3(1), 83-94; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides3010004 - 06 Jan 2022

Viewed by 3305

Abstract

Didymosphenia geminata is a species of freshwater diatom that is known as invasive and is propagating quickly around the world. While invasive species are generally considered a nuisance, this paper attempts to find useful applications for D. geminata in the biomedical field and [...] Read more.

Didymosphenia geminata is a species of freshwater diatom that is known as invasive and is propagating quickly around the world. While invasive species are generally considered a nuisance, this paper attempts to find useful applications for D. geminata in the biomedical field and wastewater remediation. Here, we highlight the polysaccharide-based stalks of D. geminata that enable versatile potential applications and uses as a biopolymer, in drug delivery and wound healing, and as biocompatible scaffolding in cell adhesion and proliferation. Furthermore, this review focuses on how the polysaccharide nature of stalks and their metal-adsorption capacity allows them to have excellent wastewater remediation potential. This work also aims to assess the economic impact of D. geminata, as an invasive species, on its immediate environment. Potential government measures and legislation are recommended to prevent the spread of D. geminata, emphasizing the importance of education and collaboration between stakeholders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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11 pages, 9888 KiB

Open AccessReview

Didymo and Its Polysaccharide Stalks: Beneficial to the Environment or Not?

by Hurmat Ejaz, Esther Somanader, Uday Dave, Hermann Ehrlich and M. Azizur Rahman

Polysaccharides 2021, 2(1), 69-79; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides2010005 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3769

Abstract

Didymosphenia geminata diatoms, or Didymo, was first found to be an invasive species that could have negative impacts on the environment due to the aggressive growth of its polysaccharide-based stalks. The stalks’ adhesive properties have prompted park officials to alert the general public [...] Read more.

Didymosphenia geminata diatoms, or Didymo, was first found to be an invasive species that could have negative impacts on the environment due to the aggressive growth of its polysaccharide-based stalks. The stalks’ adhesive properties have prompted park officials to alert the general public to limit further spread and contamination of this algae to other bodies of water. Although the negative effects of Didymo have been studied in the past, recent studies have demonstrated a potential positive side to this alga. One of the potential benefits includes the structural component of the polysaccharide stalks. The origin of the polysaccharides within stalks remains unknown; however, they can be useful in a waste management and agricultural setting. The primary purpose of this study was to describe both the harmful and beneficial nature of Didymo. Important outcomes include findings related to its application in various fields such as medicine and technology. These polysaccharides can be isolated and studied closely to produce efficient solar power cells and batteries. Though they may be harmful while uncontained in nature, they appear to be very useful in the technological and medical advancement of our society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chitin and Collagen: Isolation, Purification, Characterization, and Applications)

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