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Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 November 2023) | Viewed by 22147

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Dr. Arpan Biswas

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Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
Interests: shape memory polymers; 4D printing; polymer nanocomposites

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The growing demand for new technologies to counter various challenges requires multifunctional design solutions. In this context, 3D or 4D printing can offer countless benefits over conventional fabrication techniques by increasing the horizons of design with high geometric complexity and use of a wide range of different materials. The new age of digital manufacturing has radically transformed the way complex objects are designed and produced.

The fabrication of soft materials using 3D or 4D printing is an emerging technology in research and industry for diverse applications from prototype to end-use design. Although the fabrication of soft materials using additive manufacturing has advanced sustainably, there are still many avenues of research and challenges in materials, fabrications, and designs that need to be addressed. For example, improving the smartness of soft materials is needed to improve the performance of the fabricated structures. Fabrication challenges include the development of new ways of depositing smart materials to form a structure and assessing how printing processes influence end part performance. Addressing challenges in designing polymers to form lattices, multimaterial structures, and stimuli-responsive parts will support applications that utilize these designed features for improved performance and functionality. Targeting these areas of research and further challenges will open new doors for fully understanding and utilizing 3D-printed polymers to the fullest of their potential for diverse applications.

For this reason, this Special issue will focus on recent innovative developments in terms of both material development and 3D and 4D fabrication techniques. The findings presented will provide the scientific community with relevant information about better management of printing parameters, improving materials smartness, and new fabrication techniques to achieve different goals.

It is our pleasure to invite you to submit a manuscript for this Special Issue. Full papers, communications, and reviews are all welcome.

Dr. Arpan Biswas
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

design
3D/4D printing
polymer synthesis
composites
shape-changing behavior
application
healthcare

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 6434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer Composites Based on Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Used in Rapid Prototyping Technology

by Katarzyna Bulanda, Mariusz Oleksy and Rafał Oliwa

Polymers 2023, 15(6), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061565 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1792

Abstract

As part of this work, polymer composites based on polycarbonate/acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (PC/ABS) were obtained and used in 3D printing technology, particularly Melted Extrusion Modeling (MEM) technology. The influence of selected fillers on the properties of the obtained composites was investigated. For this purpose, modified fillers such as silica modified with alumina, bentonite modified with a quaternary ammonium salt, and hybrid lignin/silicon dioxide filler were introduced into the PC/ABS matrix. In the first part of this work, polymer blends and their composites containing 1.5–3 wt. of the filler were used to obtain the filament using the proprietary technological line. Moldings for testing the performance properties were obtained using additive manufacturing techniques and injection molding. In the subsequent part of this work, rheological properties (mass flow rate (MFR) and viscosity curves) and mechanical properties (Rockwell hardness and static tensile strength with Young’s modulus) were examined. The structures of the obtained composites were also determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDS). The obtained results confirmed the results obtained from a wide-angle X-ray scattering analysis (WAXS). In turn, the physicochemical properties were characterized on the basis of the results of tests using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Based on the obtained results, it was found that the introduced modified additives had a significant impact on the processing and functional properties of the tested composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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14 pages, 3090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functionalized Soybean Oil- and Vanillin-Based Dual Cure Photopolymerizable System for Light-Based 3D Structuring

by Vilte Sereikaite, Aukse Navaruckiene, Justinas Jaras, Edvinas Skliutas, Dimitra Ladika, David Gray, Mangirdas Malinauskas, Vaidas Talacka and Jolita Ostrauskaite

Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5361; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245361 - 08 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1409

Abstract

A novel dual cure photopolymerizable system was developed by combining two plant-derived acrylic monomers, acrylated epoxidized soybean oil and vanillin dimethacrylate, as well as the thiol monomer pentaerythritol tetrakis (3-mercaptopropionate). Carefully selected resin composition allowed the researchers to overcome earlier stability/premature polymerization problems and to obtain stable (up to six months at 4 °C) and selectively-polymerizable resin. The resin demonstrated rapid photocuring without an induction period and reached a rigidity of 317.66 MPa, which was more than 20 times higher than that of the other vanillin-based polymers. Improved mechanical properties and thermal stability of the resulting cross-linked photopolymer were obtained compared to similar homo- and copolymers: Young’s modulus reached 4753 MPa, the compression modulus reached 1634 MPa, and the temperature of 10% weight loss was 373 °C. The developed photocurable system was successfully applied in stereolithography and characterized with femtosecond pulsed two-beam initiation threshold measurement for the first time. The polymerization threshold of the investigated polymer was determined to be controlled by the sample temperature, making the footprint of the workstations cheaper, faster, and more reliable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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21 pages, 12038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Evaluation of Small-Diameter Bioartificial Arteries Based on a Combined-Mold Technology

by Weijie Jiao, Chen Liu, Jingxin Shan, Zhiyuan Kong and Xiaohong Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3089; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153089 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1445

Abstract

Arterial stenosis or blockage is the leading cause of cardiovascular disease, and the common solution is to substitute the arteries by autologous veins or bypass the blood vessels physically. With the development of science and technology, arteries with diameter larger than 6 mm can be substituted by unbiodegradable polymers, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, clinically. Nevertheless, the construction of a small-diameter (less than 6 mm) artery with living cells has always been a thorny problem. In this study, a suit of combined mold was designed and forged for constructing small-diameter arterial vessels. Based on this combined mold, bioactive arterial vessels containing adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) and different growth factors (GFs) were assembled together to mimic the inner and middle layers of the natural arteries. Before assembling, ASCs and GFs were loaded into a gelatin/alginate hydrogel. To enhance the mechanical property of the bilayer arterial vessels, polylactic–glycolic acid (PLGA) was applied on the surface of the bilayer vessels to form the outer third layer. The biocompatibility, morphology and mechanical property of the constructed triple-layer arterial vessels were characterized. The morphological results manifested that cells grow well in the gelatin/alginate hydrogels, and ASCs were differentiated into endothelial cells (ECs) and smooth muscle cells (SMCs), respectively. In addition, under the action of shear stress produced by the flow of the culture medium, cells in the hydrogels with high density were connected to each other, similar to the natural vascular endothelial tissues (i.e., endothelia). Especially, the mechanical property of the triple-layer arterial vessels can well meet the anti-stress requirements as human blood vessels. In a word, a small-diameter arterial vessel was successfully constructed through the combined mold and has a promising application prospect as a clinical small-diameter vessel graft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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16 pages, 7429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Reinforcements and 3-D Printing Parameters on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) Polymer Composites

by Ved S. Vakharia, Mrityunjay Singh, Anton Salem, Michael C. Halbig and Jonathan A. Salem

Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2105; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102105 - 21 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2003

Abstract

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) systems utilize a wide variety of commercially available filaments, including Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), as well as their variants. However, the effect of filament composition, reinforcements (chopped fibers and nanotubes), and 3-D printing variables on the microstructure and thermomechanical behavior is not well understood, and systematic studies are needed. In this work, different types of ABS materials with and without carbon fiber and carbon nanotube reinforcements were printed with multiple print layer heights. The microstructure, elastic behavior, tensile behavior, and fracture toughness of 3-D printed materials were characterized. ABS material systems printed at a low print layer height of 0.1 mm outperformed those printed at a larger height of 0.2 mm. Carbon nanotube reinforcements result in significant improvement in the strength and elastic modulus of ABS materials. Printed coupons of ABS with carbon nanotubes achieve an ultimate strength of 34.18 MPa, while a premium grade ABS coupon achieved 28.75 MPa when printed with the same print layer heights. Samples of ABS with chopped carbon fiber show an ultimate strength of 27.25 MPa, due primarily to the significant porosity present in the filament. Elastic moduli and fracture toughness measured using dynamic and mechanical methods show similar trends as a function of layer height. The effects of different materials, reinforcements, and printing parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties are discussed in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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13 pages, 6253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Parameter Optimization of 3D Printing Condition for Enhanced Quality and Strength

by Brandon Jackson, Kamran Fouladi and Babak Eslami

Polymers 2022, 14(8), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14081586 - 13 Apr 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3441

Abstract

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing is the most common type of additive manufacturing available in both research and the industry. Due to the rapid development of 3D printing, there is now a significant need to fabricate parts with higher quality with respect to cosmetics, precision, and strength of the final products. This work is focused on finding the optimal printing condition for a commercially available 3D printer and filament material (i.e., Polylactic acid (PLA)). In this work, we focus on finding the combined effect of retraction speed, deposition angle, and number of walls on both the visual quality and strength of 3D-printed parts. It is found that the number of walls does not play a major role in the strength of the parts. On the other hand, the retraction speed plays a significant role in defining the ultimate tensile strength of the parts. For parts printed at higher retraction speeds, there is a 10–15% improvement in the ultimate tensile strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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28 pages, 6263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Process Variables of Acetone Vapor Jet Drilling on Surface Roughness and Circularity of 3D-Printed ABS Parts: Fabrication and Studies on Thermal, Morphological, and Chemical Characterizations

by Shahbaz Juneja, Jasgurpreet Singh Chohan, Raman Kumar, Shubham Sharma, R. A. Ilyas, M. R. M. Asyraf and M. R. Razman

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1367; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071367 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2230

Abstract

Ever since the introduction of 3D printing, industries have seen an exponential growth in production and efficiency. Three-dimensional printing is the process of additive manufacturing (AM) in which the conventional method of material removal is challenged. Layer-on-layer deposition is the basic principle of the AM. Additive manufacturing technologies are used to create 3D-printed objects. An object is built in an additive technique by laying down successive layers of material until the object is complete. Each of these layers can be viewed as a cross-section of the item that has been lightly cut. When compared to traditional production methods, 3D printing allows the creation of complicated shapes with less material. In conventional methods, the materials go through several damages due to the tool–workpiece contact creating friction between them and the dissipated heat that damages the material. Overcoming the conventional method of machining with the help of 3D printing is a new advancement in the industries. The process involves using non-conventional methods for the machining of the parts. This research was oriented towards the chemical vapor jet drilling of the acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) materials. ABS materials are highly machinable and can be recycled for further usage. This paper focused on the usage of acetone as the chemical for drilling. The surface roughness and circularity of the drilled hole was taken into account for this research paper. We set up a manual experiment to run tests and get results. A vapor jet machine was designed with acetone as the core for the vapor. Various analyses were also formulated and conducted during experimentations. Surface roughness analysis provided the insight of roughness after the machining with the help of acetone vapor jet spray. SEM and micro-image parameters were also considered for more clear and advanced reports. In this research paper, DSC and FTIR analysis were performed to understand changes in the internal structure and the material properties of the ABS. Moreover, the research aimed to investigate the effect of various inputs processing parameters such as pressure, flow rate, and stand-off distance on the surface roughness and circularity of ABS workpiece material. The Taguchi L₉ orthogonal array design was utilized to conduct tests by chemical vapor jet drilling using acetone and to evaluate the performance of the set-up while reducing the influence of interfering factors in order to provide reliable surface finish and circularity results. The results and conclusion of the research paper aimed to determine the most suitable parameters for the non-conventional acetone vapor jet drilling of the ABS material. The theoretical calculations predicted 1.64432 and 0.3289080 values of surface roughness and circularity, respectively. On the other hand, the experimental values were recorded as 1.598 for surface roughness and 0.322 for circularity. Therefore, a negligible error of 0.046 for surface roughness and 0.0031 for circularity, respectively, was noted which validate the statistical equations and the consistency of the combined vapor jet drilling process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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15 pages, 4862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glass Powder Additive on Recycled Polypropylene Filaments: A Sustainable Material in 3D Printing

by Ruben Bayu Kristiawan, Boby Rusdyanto, Fitrian Imaduddin and Dody Ariawan

Polymers 2022, 14(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010005 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3096

Abstract

This study aimed to characterize the effect of a glass powder additive on recycled polypropylene (rPP) materials from food packaging to be used as filaments in material extrusion (MEX) 3D printing applications. The composite filaments studied were rPP filaments with glass powder (GP) additive in the 2.5%, 5%, and 10% fractions. As a baseline, the filaments made of pure virgin PP and rPP without additive were used. The filament that has been successfully made is then printed into a tensile test specimen and an impact test to observe its mechanical properties. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization was also carried out to determine the effect of chemical bonding and thermal characterization using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results of FTIR characterization on the sample rPP + 10% do not show a typical peak shift of PP, but give rise to new peaks at wavenumbers of 1000 cm⁻¹ (Si-O-Na), 890 cm⁻¹ (Si-H) and 849 cm⁻¹ (O-Si-O), which indicate the typical peaks of the glass constituent compounds. In the thermal characteristics, the addition of GP shows the improved stability of mass changes to heat and increases the melting temperature of rPP. The ultimate tensile strength and Young’s modulus for rPP-based specimens with 10% GP additive showed an increase of 38% and 42% compared to PP specimens. In addition to the improved mechanical strength, the addition of GP also reduces the bending deformation, which can be well controlled, and reduces curvature, which is a problem in semicrystalline polymer-based filaments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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Review

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13 pages, 686 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymers in Technologies of Additive and Inkjet Printing of Dosage Formulations

by Evgenia V. Blynskaya, Sergey V. Tishkov, Konstantin V. Alekseev, Alexandre A. Vetcher, Anna I. Marakhova and Dovlet T. Rejepov

Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2543; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132543 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1692

Abstract

Technologies for obtaining dosage formulations (DF) for personalized therapy are currently being developed in the field of inkjet (2D) and 3D printing, which allows for the creation of DF using various methods, depending on the properties of pharmaceutical substances and the desired therapeutic effect. By combining these types of printing with smart polymers and special technological approaches, so-called 4D printed dosage formulations are obtained. This article discusses the main technological aspects and used excipients of a polymeric nature for obtaining 2D, 3D, 4D printed dosage formulations. Based on the literature data, the most widely used polymers, their properties, and application features are determined, and the technological characteristics of inkjet and additive 3D printing are shown. Conclusions are drawn about the key areas of development and the difficulties that arise in the search and implementation in the production of new materials and technologies for obtaining those dosage formulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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24 pages, 7738 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application Status of Sacrificial Biomaterials in 3D Bioprinting

by Siyu Liu, Tianlin Wang, Shenglong Li and Xiaohong Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(11), 2182; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14112182 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4155

Abstract

Additive manufacturing, also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, relates to several rapid prototyping (RP) technologies, and has shown great potential in the manufacture of organoids and even complex bioartificial organs. A major challenge for 3D bioprinting complex org unit ans is the competitive requirements with respect to structural biomimeticability, material integrability, and functional manufacturability. Over the past several years, 3D bioprinting based on sacrificial templates has shown its unique advantages in building hierarchical vascular networks in complex organs. Sacrificial biomaterials as supporting structures have been used widely in the construction of tubular tissues. The advent of suspension printing has enabled the precise printing of some soft biomaterials (e.g., collagen and fibrinogen), which were previously considered unprintable singly with cells. In addition, the introduction of sacrificial biomaterials can improve the porosity of biomaterials, making the printed structures more favorable for cell proliferation, migration and connection. In this review, we mainly consider the latest developments and applications of 3D bioprinting based on the strategy of sacrificial biomaterials, discuss the basic principles of sacrificial templates, and look forward to the broad prospects of this approach for complex organ engineering or manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication of Polymer Materials Using 3D/4D Printing for Different Applications)

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