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Microorganisms
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The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork
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The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2019) | Viewed by 30296

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Armando Venâncio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centro de Engenharia Biológica, Universidade do Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: food safety; food mycology and mycotoxins; fate of mycotoxins in food processing; mitigation of the risk of mycotoxins in the food chain
Prof. Dr. Paula Rodrigues

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
Interests: food safety; food preservation technologies; food mycology; mycotoxicology; ecophysiology of toxigenic fungi; mycotoxin control strategies

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by some species of filamentous fungi in agricultural crops at pre- and post-harvest stages, and in animal products at processing stages. Filamentous fungi are ubiquitous in nature and, for this reason, mycotoxins may be generally regarded as natural and unavoidable. Mycotoxins have always plagued mankind, both before and since the beginning of organized crop production; they have attracted worldwide scientific, political, and economic attention in the last fifty years because of the significant economic losses associated with their impacts on human health, animal productivity, and international trade.

This Special Issue will publish works on distribution, ecology, and inactivation of mycotoxigenic fungi, as well as on the occurrence, detection, and segregation of mycotoxins in the food chain. Special emphasis will be given to studies dealing with emergent, modified, or masked mycotoxins. Original laboratory studies, as well as critical review papers, are cordially invited for submission to this Special Issue of Microorganisms. 

Prof. Armando Venâncio
Prof. Paula Rodrigues
Guest Editors 

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • mycotoxins (including modified and masked forms)
  • mycotoxigenic fungi occurrence and control
  • fate during food processing

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 664 KiB  
Article
A Comprehensive Study on the Occurrence of Mycotoxins and Their Producing Fungi during the Maize Production Cycle in Spain
by Marta García-Díaz, Jéssica Gil-Serna, Covadonga Vázquez, María Nieves Botia and Belén Patiño
Microorganisms 2020, 8(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8010141 - 20 Jan 2020
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 3885
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination is one of the main problems affecting corn production, due to its significant risk to human and animal health. The Fusarium and Aspergillus species are the main producers of mycotoxins in maize, infecting both pre-harvest and during storage. In this work, [...] Read more.
Mycotoxin contamination is one of the main problems affecting corn production, due to its significant risk to human and animal health. The Fusarium and Aspergillus species are the main producers of mycotoxins in maize, infecting both pre-harvest and during storage. In this work, we evaluated the presence of mycotoxins and their producing species along maize production cycles in three different stages (anthesis, harvest, and storage) during three consecutive seasons (2016–2018). Fungal occurrences were studied using species-specific PCR protocols, whereas mycotoxin levels were determined by LC-MS/MS. Fumonisin-producing Fusarium species (F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum), as well as the aflatoxin producer Aspergillus flavus, were the most predominant species at all stages; although, during some seasons, the presence of F. graminearum and A. niger aggregate species were also identified. Contrastingly, fumonisins were the only mycotoxins detected and levels were always under legal regulations. The results presented here demonstrate that even when fungal contamination occurs at the early stages of the maize production cycle, the application of good agricultural and storage practices might be crucial to ensure mycotoxin-free grains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
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17 pages, 2752 KiB  
Article
Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Feed and Food
by Roberta Palumbo, Alfonso Crisci, Armando Venâncio, José Cortiñas Abrahantes, Jean-Lou Dorne, Paola Battilani and Piero Toscano
Microorganisms 2020, 8(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8010074 - 03 Jan 2020
Cited by 109 | Viewed by 4810
Abstract
Dietary (co)-exposure to mycotoxins is associated with human and animal health concerns as well as economic losses. This study aims to give a data-based insight from the scientific literature on the (co-)occurrence of mycotoxins (i.e., parent and modified forms) in European core cereals, [...] Read more.
Dietary (co)-exposure to mycotoxins is associated with human and animal health concerns as well as economic losses. This study aims to give a data-based insight from the scientific literature on the (co-)occurrence of mycotoxins (i.e., parent and modified forms) in European core cereals, and to estimate potential patterns of co-exposure in humans and animals. Mycotoxins were mainly reported in wheat and maize showing the highest concentrations of fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxins (AFs), and zearalenone (ZEN). The maximum concentrations of FB1+FB2 were reported in maize both in feed and food and were above legal maximum levels (MLs). Similar results were observed in DON-food, whose max concentrations in wheat, barley, maize, and oat exceeded the MLs. Co-occurrence was reported in 54.9% of total records, meaning that they were co-contaminated with at least two mycotoxins. In the context of parental mycotoxins, co-occurrence of DON was frequently observed with FBs in maize and ZEN in wheat; DON + NIV and DON + T2/HT2 were frequently reported in barley and oat, respectively. Apart from the occurrence of ZEN and its phase I and phase II modified forms, only a limited number of quantified data were available for other modified forms; i.e., mainly the acetyl derivatives of DON. Data gaps are highlighted together with the need for monitoring studies on multiple mycotoxins to identify co-occurrence patterns for parent mycotoxins, metabolites, and their modified forms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
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14 pages, 1485 KiB  
Article
Modelling Fungal Growth, Mycotoxin Production and Release in Grana Cheese
by Marco Camardo Leggieri, Amedeo Pietri and Paola Battilani
Microorganisms 2020, 8(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8010069 - 02 Jan 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3695
Abstract
No information is available in the literature about the influence of temperature (T) on Penicillium and Aspergillus spp. growth and mycotoxin production on cheese rinds. The aim of this work was to: (i) study fungal ecology on cheese in terms of T requirements, [...] Read more.
No information is available in the literature about the influence of temperature (T) on Penicillium and Aspergillus spp. growth and mycotoxin production on cheese rinds. The aim of this work was to: (i) study fungal ecology on cheese in terms of T requirements, focusing on the partitioning of mycotoxins between the rind and mycelium; and (ii) validate predictive models previously developed by in vitro trials. Grana cheese rind blocks were inoculated with A. versicolor, P. crustosum, P. nordicum, P. roqueforti, and P. verrucosum, incubated at different T regimes (10–30 °C, step 5 °C) and after 14 days the production of mycotoxins (ochratoxin A (OTA); sterigmatocystin (STC); roquefortine C (ROQ-C), mycophenolic acid (MPA), Pr toxin (PR-Tox), citrinin (CIT), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA)) was quantified. All the fungi grew optimally around 15–25 °C and produced the expected mycotoxins (except MPA, Pr-Tox, and CIT). The majority of the mycotoxins produced remained in the mycelium (~90%) in three out of five fungal species (P. crustosum, P. nordicum, and P. roqueforti); the opposite occurred for A. versicolor and P. verrucosum with 71% and 58% of STC and OTA detected in cheese rind, respectively. Available predictive models fitted fungal growth on the cheese rind well, but validation was not possible for mycotoxins because they were produced in a very narrow T range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
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7 pages, 217 KiB  
Article
Screening of Various Metabolites in Six Barley Varieties Grown under Natural Climatic Conditions (2016–2018)
by Kristina Habschied, Rudolf Krska, Michael Sulyok, Bojan Šarkanj, Vinko Krstanović, Alojzije Lalić, Gordana Šimić and Krešimir Mastanjević
Microorganisms 2019, 7(11), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7110532 - 06 Nov 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1978
Abstract
Climatic changes influence considerably the distribution and occurrence of different secondary metabolites in cereals. The aim of this investigation was to assess the changes in metabolite prevalence observed in six different winter barley varieties over a statistically significant period of three years by [...] Read more.
Climatic changes influence considerably the distribution and occurrence of different secondary metabolites in cereals. The aim of this investigation was to assess the changes in metabolite prevalence observed in six different winter barley varieties over a statistically significant period of three years by linking agro-climatic conditions with metabolite concentrations in chosen samples. The results showed that temperatures and precipitation levels varied during the observed timeframe and that the multi-toxin concentrations followed the trend of changing climatic conditions depending on the variety. All quantified (fungal) metabolites showed significant variations throughout the years and, for some (tryptophol and the cyclic dipeptides cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr) and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val)), an unexpected, but clear connection can be made with temperature changes and precipitation levels during the growing season. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
14 pages, 2666 KiB  
Article
A Polyphasic Approach Aids Early Detection of Potentially Toxigenic Aspergilli in Soil
by Giovanni Cafà, Benedetta Caggiano, Michael A. Reeve, Hamzah Bhatti, Sabyan F. Honey, Babar Bajwa and Alan G. Buddie
Microorganisms 2019, 7(9), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7090300 - 29 Aug 2019
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3255
Abstract
Key chili and maize growing areas of Pakistan were selected for a focused baseline study of the levels of Aspergillus spp. Investigations were undertaken using a combination of molecular and culture-based techniques. Samples investigated included soil samples, one-year-old corn cobs, and fresh chili [...] Read more.
Key chili and maize growing areas of Pakistan were selected for a focused baseline study of the levels of Aspergillus spp. Investigations were undertaken using a combination of molecular and culture-based techniques. Samples investigated included soil samples, one-year-old corn cobs, and fresh chili from selected locations. Aspergillus strains obtained from corn cobs were screened using coconut milk agar, resulting in one strain that was positive for aflatoxin production. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) with low coverage techniques were employed to screen the isolates for differences in the ribosomal RNA gene cluster and mitochondrial genome, with the aflatoxigenic strain proving to have a distinctive profile. Finally, strains were subjected to matrix-assisted laser-desorption and ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF-MS) in order to obtain a proteomic ‘fingerprint’ which was used to distinguish the aflatoxigenic strain from the other isolates. The next generation sequencing (NGS) study was broadened to incorporate metabarcoding with ITS rRNA for determining the microbial biodiversity of the soil samples and presumptive screening for the presence of aflatoxigenic strains. Using information gleaned from the WGS results, a putative aflatoxigenic operational taxonomic unit (OTU) was observed in four of the 15 soil samples screened by metabarcoding. This method may have beneficial applications in early detection and surveillance programs in agricultural soils and commodities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
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10 pages, 1153 KiB  
Article
Gaseous Ozonation to Reduce Aflatoxins Levels and Microbial Contamination in Corn Grits
by Yuri Duarte Porto, Felipe Machado Trombete, Otniel Freitas-Silva, Izabela Miranda de Castro, Gloria Maria Direito and José Luis Ramirez Ascheri
Microorganisms 2019, 7(8), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7080220 - 28 Jul 2019
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 3548
Abstract
Corn is one of the most cultivated cereals in Brazil. However, its grains are constantly exposed to contamination by mycotoxins. Corn grits are used by the food industry to produce a large variety of corn products such as canjiquinha, a cultural food easily [...] Read more.
Corn is one of the most cultivated cereals in Brazil. However, its grains are constantly exposed to contamination by mycotoxins. Corn grits are used by the food industry to produce a large variety of corn products such as canjiquinha, a cultural food easily purchased by the Brazilian consumer at low prices. Some studies have demonstrated high contamination of this product by aflatoxins (AFs), representing a potential risk of exposure due to such a contamination. In this study, the efficacy of gaseous ozonation was evaluated on the levels of aflatoxins and on the microbial contamination of corn grits. The application of gaseous ozone was tested in different combinations of exposure time, ozone concentration, and canjiquinha mass. After the ozonation treatment, samples were collected for aflatoxin and microbiological analyses. Aflatoxins were evaluated using a high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD) system using pre-column derivatization, and the microbiological analyses were carried out for toxin-producer fungi and mesophilic bacteria. After ozone detoxification, results showed reductions up to 57% in aflatoxin levels. Total fungal count was reduced around 3.0 cycles log CFU g−1 and total mesophilic counts were reduced to non-detectable levels. These results demonstrated that ozonation is an effective alternative for reducing aflatoxin and microbial contamination in products like canjiquinha, thereby improving food safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
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Review

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16 pages, 2707 KiB  
Review
Detection Methods for Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Products
by Andreia Vaz, Ana C. Cabral Silva, Paula Rodrigues and Armando Venâncio
Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020246 - 12 Feb 2020
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 8477
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced mainly by fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. In the food chain, the original mycotoxin may be transformed in other toxic compounds, reaching the consumer. A good example is the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced mainly by fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. In the food chain, the original mycotoxin may be transformed in other toxic compounds, reaching the consumer. A good example is the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in dairy products, which is due to the presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the animal feed. Thus, milk-based foods, such as cheese and yogurts, may be contaminated with this toxin, which, although less toxic than AFB1, also exhibits hepatotoxic and carcinogenic effects and is relatively stable during pasteurization, storage and processing. For this reason, the establishment of allowed maximum limits in dairy products and the development of methodologies for its detection and quantification are of extreme importance. There are several methods for the detection of AFM1 in dairy products. Usually, the analytical procedures go through the following stages: sampling, extraction, clean-up, determination and quantification. For the extraction stage, the use of organic solvents (as acetonitrile and methanol) is still the most common, but recent advances include the use of the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe method (QuEChERS) and proteolytic enzymes, which have been demonstrated to be good alternatives. For the clean-up stage, the high selectivity of immunoaffinity columns is still a good option, but alternative and cheaper techniques are becoming more competitive. Regarding quantification of the toxin, screening strategies include the use of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to select presumptive positive samples from a wider range of samples, and more reliable methods—high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection or mass spectroscopy—for the separation, identification and quantification of the toxin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Route of Mycotoxins from Farm to Fork)
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