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Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals
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Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2016) | Viewed by 134877

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Soran Birosca

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Design Engineering, University of Portsmouth, Hampshire, PO1 2ST, UK
Interests: physical metallurgy; deformation mechanism; microstructure characterisation; fracture mechanics and failure mechanism; microtexture and microstructure evolutions during thermomechanical processing and phase transformation of cubic and hcp structures; texture analysis; structure/property relationship; mechanical property of metals; high temperature corrosion; electron microscopy; in-situ observation using SEM; EBSD; neutron and synchrotron X-ray diffraction as well as non-destructive 3D imaging (x-ray micro-tomography)
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In this Special Issue of Metals, an open access forum is provided for publishing original papers that the covers direct and effective correlations between a wide range of thermomechanical processing routes and generated microstructure, hence, the final physical and mechanical properties of the materials. The following aspects of the science and engineering of any metals and alloys are of particular interest:

  • Original research studies that relate to the understanding of the properties obtained following specific processing/heat treatment route (Experimental, theoretical, and simulation modeling).
  • Understanding the mechanisms involved in microstructure evolution and phase transformation during processing of materials, specifically as they relate to the understanding of final mechanical properties.
  • Nano/micro/macro structure characterization and chemistry of metals/alloys used in automotive, power generation, nuclear, aerospace, and medical applications.
  • Micro/macro texture devolvement during thermo-mechanical processing of metals/alloys.

Dr. Soran Birosca
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Metals
  • Alloys
  • Microstructure
  • Deformation
  • Microtexture
  • Mechanical Property
  • Fracture Mechanics
  • Texture
  • Material Characterisation
  • Grain Boundary
  • Dislocation
  • Slip System
  • Twinning
  • EBSD

Published Papers (22 papers)

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Research

5019 KiB  
Article
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of J55ERW Steel Pipe Processed by On-Line Spray Water Cooling
by Zejun Chen, Xin Chen and Tianpeng Zhou
Metals 2017, 7(4), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/met7040150 - 23 Apr 2017
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7108
Abstract
An on-line spray water cooling (OSWC) process for manufacturing electric resistance welded (ERW) steel pipes is presented to enhance their mechanical properties and performances. This technique reduces the processing needed for the ERW pipe and overcomes the weakness of the conventional manufacturing technique. [...] Read more.
An on-line spray water cooling (OSWC) process for manufacturing electric resistance welded (ERW) steel pipes is presented to enhance their mechanical properties and performances. This technique reduces the processing needed for the ERW pipe and overcomes the weakness of the conventional manufacturing technique. Industrial tests for J55 ERW steel pipe were carried out to validate the effectiveness of the OSWC process. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the J55 ERW steel pipe processed by the OSWC technology were investigated. The optimized OSWC technical parameters are presented based on the mechanical properties and impact the performance of steel pipes. The industrial tests show that the OSWC process can be used to efficiently control the microstructure, enhance mechanical properties, and improve production flexibility of steel pipes. The comprehensive mechanical properties of steel pipes processed by the OSWC are superior to those of other published J55 grade steels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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3785 KiB  
Article
In Situ Observation of Crystal Rain and Its Effect on Columnar to Equiaxed Transition
by Honggang Zhong, Yunhu Zhang, Xiangru Chen, Congsen Wu, Zhiqiang Wei and Qijie Zhai
Metals 2016, 6(11), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6110271 - 08 Nov 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3822
Abstract
The investigation of a columnar to equiaxed transition (CET) and grain refinement is of high commercial importance for the improvement of the solidification structure of metal castings. The crystal rain from the free surface is frequently generated to produce grain refinement and promote [...] Read more.
The investigation of a columnar to equiaxed transition (CET) and grain refinement is of high commercial importance for the improvement of the solidification structure of metal castings. The crystal rain from the free surface is frequently generated to produce grain refinement and promote a CET in alloys under the application of electromagnetic fields. However, the mechanism underlying the CET influenced by the generated crystal rain is not clear because the employed metallic alloys are opaque. In the present paper, the crystal rain in a transparent NH4Cl–H2O solution is produced by blowing a cooled nitrogen gas on the free surface to observe in situ its impact on the occurrence of a CET. The results show that the crystal rain can significantly promote a CET even in a high temperature gradient and that a CET only can occur when the temperature gradient is almost close to zero in the reference experiment. Finally, the most likely mechanism is discussed and clarified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4297 KiB  
Article
Grain Boundary Assemblies in Dynamically-Recrystallized Austenitic Stainless Steel
by Marina Tikhonova, Pavel Dolzhenko, Rustam Kaibyshev and Andrey Belyakov
Metals 2016, 6(11), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6110268 - 07 Nov 2016
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5549
Abstract
The grain boundary misorientation distributions associated with the development of dynamic recrystallization were studied in a high-nitrogen austenitic stainless steel subjected to hot working. Under conditions of discontinuous dynamic recrystallization, the relationships between the grain or subgrain sizes and flow stresses can be [...] Read more.
The grain boundary misorientation distributions associated with the development of dynamic recrystallization were studied in a high-nitrogen austenitic stainless steel subjected to hot working. Under conditions of discontinuous dynamic recrystallization, the relationships between the grain or subgrain sizes and flow stresses can be expressed by power law functions with different grain/subgrain size exponents of about −0.76 (for grain size) or −1.0 (for subgrain size). Therefore, the mean grain size being much larger than the subgrain size under conditions of low flow stress gradually approaches the size of the subgrains with an increase in the flow stress. These dependencies lead to the fraction of high-angle boundaries being a function of the flow stress. Namely, the fraction of ordinary high-angle boundaries in dynamically-recrystallized structures decreases with a decrease in the flow stress. On the other hand, the fraction of special boundaries, which are associated with annealing twins, progressively increases with a decrease of the flow stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4908 KiB  
Article
The Role of the Bainitic Packet in Control of Impact Toughness in a Simulated CGHAZ of X90 Pipeline Steel
by Bin Guo, Lei Fan, Qian Wang, Zhibin Fu, Qingfeng Wang and Fucheng Zhang
Metals 2016, 6(11), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6110256 - 27 Oct 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6204
Abstract
X90 pipeline steel was processed with the simulated coarse grain heat affect zone (CGHAZ) thermal cycle with heat input varying from 30 kJ/cm to 60 kJ/cm, the microstructures were investigated by means of optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscattering diffraction [...] Read more.
X90 pipeline steel was processed with the simulated coarse grain heat affect zone (CGHAZ) thermal cycle with heat input varying from 30 kJ/cm to 60 kJ/cm, the microstructures were investigated by means of optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD), and transmission electron microscope (TEM), and the impact properties were evaluated from the welding thermal cycle treated samples. The results indicate that the microstructure is primarily composed of lath bainite. When decreasing the heat input, both bainite packet and block are significantly refined, and the toughness has an increased tendency due to the grain refinement. The fracture surfaces all present cleavage fracture for the samples with different heat inputs. Moreover, the average cleavage facet size for the CGHAZ is nearly equal to the average bainite packet size, and the bainitic packet boundary can strongly impede the crack propagation, indicating that the bainitic packet is the most effective unit in control of impact toughness in the simulated CGHAZ of X90 pipeline steel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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3883 KiB  
Article
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of an Al-Li-Mg-Sc-Zr Alloy Subjected to ECAP
by Anna Mogucheva and Rustam Kaibyshev
Metals 2016, 6(11), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6110254 - 25 Oct 2016
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4452
Abstract
The effect of post-deformation solution treatment followed by water quenching and artificial aging on microstructure and mechanical properties of an Al-Li-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy subjected to equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) was examined. It was shown that the deformed microstructure produced by ECAP remains essentially unchanged [...] Read more.
The effect of post-deformation solution treatment followed by water quenching and artificial aging on microstructure and mechanical properties of an Al-Li-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy subjected to equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) was examined. It was shown that the deformed microstructure produced by ECAP remains essentially unchanged under solution treatment. However, extensive grain refinement owing to ECAP processing significantly affects the precipitation sequence during aging. In the aluminum-lithium alloy with ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure, the coarse particles of the S1-phase (Al2LiMg) precipitate on high-angle boundaries; no formation of nanoscale coherent dispersoids of the δ′-phase (Al3Li) occurs within grain interiors. Increasing the number of high-angle boundaries leads to an increasing portion of the S1-phase. As a result, no significant increase in strength occurs despite extensive grain refinement by ECAP. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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13777 KiB  
Article
Deformation Characteristic and Constitutive Modeling of 2707 Hyper Duplex Stainless Steel under Hot Compression
by Huabing Li, Weichao Jiao, Hao Feng, Xinxu Li, Zhouhua Jiang, Guoping Li, Lixin Wang, Guangwei Fan and Peide Han
Metals 2016, 6(9), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090223 - 12 Sep 2016
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6488
Abstract
Hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of 2707 hyper duplex stainless steel (HDSS) were investigated through hot compression tests in the temperature range of 900–1250 °C and strain rate range of 0.01–10 s−1. The results showed that the flow behavior strongly [...] Read more.
Hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of 2707 hyper duplex stainless steel (HDSS) were investigated through hot compression tests in the temperature range of 900–1250 °C and strain rate range of 0.01–10 s−1. The results showed that the flow behavior strongly depended on strain rate and temperature, and flow stress increased with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature. At lower temperatures, many precipitates appeared in ferrite and distributed along the deformation direction, which could restrain processing of discontinuous dynamic recrystallization (DRX) because of pinning grain boundaries. When the temperature increased to 1150 °C, the leading softening behaviors were dynamic recovery (DRV) in ferrite and discontinuous DRX in austenite. When the temperature reached 1250 °C, softening behavior was mainly DRV in ferrite. The increase of strain rate was conducive to the occurrence of discontinuous DRX in austenite. A constitutive equation at peak strain was established and the results indicated that 2707 HDSS had a higher Q value (569.279 kJ·mol−1) than other traditional duplex stainless steels due to higher content of Cr, Mo, Ni, and N. Constitutive modeling considering strain was developed to model the hot deformation behavior of 2707 HDSS more accurately, and the correlation coefficient and average absolute relative error were 0.992 and 5.22%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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12025 KiB  
Article
Simulation Study on Thermo-Mechanical Controlled Process of 800 MPa-Grade Steel for Hydropower Penstocks
by Qingfeng Ding, Yuefeng Wang, Qingfeng Wang and Tiansheng Wang
Metals 2016, 6(9), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090209 - 31 Aug 2016
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4394
Abstract
The thermo-mechanical controlled process (TMCP) of 800-MPa-grade non-quenched tempered steel used for penstocks was simulated on a Gleeble-3500 thermo-mechanical simulator. The effect of the finish cooling temperature (FCT) which ranged from 350–550 °C on the microstructure and mechanical properties was studied. The microstructure [...] Read more.
The thermo-mechanical controlled process (TMCP) of 800-MPa-grade non-quenched tempered steel used for penstocks was simulated on a Gleeble-3500 thermo-mechanical simulator. The effect of the finish cooling temperature (FCT) which ranged from 350–550 °C on the microstructure and mechanical properties was studied. The microstructure of TMCP specimens is primarily composed of lath bainite (LB) and granular bainite (GB). The decreased FCT can induce the increase of LB and the decrease of GB in the volume fraction, and the decrease in the amount and the size of Martensite/Austenite (M/A) constituents with a more dispersive distribution. The LB has higher strength and hardness than GB, and the GB with fine and dispersive M/A constituents has excellent impact toughness. The minimum values of the yield strength, tensile strength and hardness, and the maximum value of the impact absorbed energy are obtained for the FCT of 450 °C. For the FCT over 450 °C, the yield strength, tensile strength and hardness are increased slightly, but the impact absorbed energy is rapidly decreased, which is mainly attributed to the formation of block M/A constituents. When the FCT is around 400 °C, the optimal combination of yield strength and impact toughness is obtained, which meets the technical requirements of 800-MPa-grade hydropower penstock steel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4869 KiB  
Article
Influence of Grain Growth Inhibitors and Powder Size on the Properties of Ultrafine and Nanostructured Cemented Carbides Sintered in Hydrogen
by Tamara Aleksandrov Fabijanić, Suzana Jakovljević, Mladen Franz and Ivan Jeren
Metals 2016, 6(9), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090198 - 24 Aug 2016
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5673
Abstract
The influence of grain growth inhibitors and powder size on the microstructure and mechanical properties of ultrafine and nanostructured cemented carbides was researched. Three different WC powders, with an addition of different type and content of grain growth inhibitors GGIs, VC and Cr [...] Read more.
The influence of grain growth inhibitors and powder size on the microstructure and mechanical properties of ultrafine and nanostructured cemented carbides was researched. Three different WC powders, with an addition of different type and content of grain growth inhibitors GGIs, VC and Cr3C2 and with dBET grain sizes in the range from 95 to 150 nm were selected as starting powders. Four different mixtures with 6 and 9 wt. % Co were prepared. The consolidated samples are characterized by different microstructural and mechanical properties with respect to the characteristics of starting powders. Increased sintering temperatures led to microstructural irregularities in the form of a discontinuous WC growth, carbide agglomerates and abnormal grain growth as a consequence of coalescence via grain boundary elimination. The addition of 0.45% Cr3C2 contributed to microstructure homogeneity, reduced discontinuous and continuous grain growth, and increased Vickers hardness by approximately 70 HV and fracture toughness by approximately 0.15 MN/m3/2. The reduction of the starting powder to a real nanosize of 95 nm resulted in lower densities, and significant hardness increase, with a simultaneously small increase in fracture toughness. The consolidation of real nanopowders (dBET < 100 nm) solely by conventional sintering in hydrogen without isostatic pressing is not preferred. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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9021 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Age Strengthening of Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr Alloy via Pre-Stretching
by Erjun Guo, Sicong Zhao, Liping Wang and Tong Wu
Metals 2016, 6(9), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090196 - 24 Aug 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3885
Abstract
Pre-stretching was carried out to modify the microstructure of Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr alloy to enhance its age strengthening. The results indicated that more heterogeneous nucleation sites can be provided by the high density of dislocations caused by the plastic pre-stretching deformation, as well as speeding [...] Read more.
Pre-stretching was carried out to modify the microstructure of Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr alloy to enhance its age strengthening. The results indicated that more heterogeneous nucleation sites can be provided by the high density of dislocations caused by the plastic pre-stretching deformation, as well as speeding up the growth rate of precipitates. Comparison of microstructure in non-pre-stretched specimens after artificial aging showed that pre-stretched specimens exhibited a higher number density of precipitates. The fine and coarse plate-shaped precipitates were found in the matrix. Due to an increase in the number density of precipitates, the dislocation slipping during the deformation process is effectively hindered, and the matrix is strengthened. The yield strength stabilizes at 4% pre-stretching condition, and then the evolution is stable within the error bars. The 8% pre-stretched specimens can achieve an ultimate tensile strength of 297 MPa. However, further pre-stretching strains after 8% cannot supply any increase in strength. Tensile fracture surfaces of specimens subjected to pre-stretching strain mainly exhibit a trans-granular cleavage fracture. This work indicated that a small amount of pre-stretching strain can further increase strength of alloy and also effectively enhance the formation of precipitates, which can expand the application fields of this alloy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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5337 KiB  
Article
Effect of Titanium on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High-Carbon Martensitic Stainless Steel 8Cr13MoV
by Wen-Tao Yu, Jing Li, Cheng-Bin Shi and Qin-Tian Zhu
Metals 2016, 6(8), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080193 - 22 Aug 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7837
Abstract
The effect of titanium on the carbides and mechanical properties of martensitic stainless steel 8Cr13MoV was studied. The results showed that TiCs not only acted as nucleation sites for δ-Fe and eutectic carbides, leading to the refinement of the microstructure, but also inhibited [...] Read more.
The effect of titanium on the carbides and mechanical properties of martensitic stainless steel 8Cr13MoV was studied. The results showed that TiCs not only acted as nucleation sites for δ-Fe and eutectic carbides, leading to the refinement of the microstructure, but also inhibited the formation of eutectic carbides M7C3. The addition of titanium in steel also promoted the transformation of M7C3-type to M23C6-type carbides, and consequently more carbides could be dissolved into the matrix during hot processing as demonstrated by the determination of extracted carbides from the steel matrix. Meanwhile, titanium suppressed the precipitation of secondary carbides during annealing. The appropriate amount of titanium addition decreased the size and fraction of primary carbides in the as-cast ingot, and improved the mechanical properties of the annealed steel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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10417 KiB  
Article
Impurity Antimony-Induced Creep Property Deterioration and Its Suppression by Rare Earth Ceriumfor a 9Cr-1Mo Ferritic Heat-Resistant Steel
by Yewei Xu and Shenhua Song
Metals 2016, 6(8), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080187 - 12 Aug 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4068
Abstract
The high temperature creep properties of three groups of modified 9Cr-1Mo steel samples, undoped, doped with Sb, and doped with Sb and Ce, are evaluated under the applied stresses from 150 MPa to 210 MPa and at the temperatures from 873–923 K. The [...] Read more.
The high temperature creep properties of three groups of modified 9Cr-1Mo steel samples, undoped, doped with Sb, and doped with Sb and Ce, are evaluated under the applied stresses from 150 MPa to 210 MPa and at the temperatures from 873–923 K. The creep behavior follows the temperature-compensated power law as well as the Monkman-Grant relation. The creep activation energy for the Sb-doped steel (519 kJ/mol) is apparently lower than that for the undoped one (541 kJ/mol), but it is considerably higher for the Sb+Ce-doped steel (621 kJ/mol). Based on the obtained relations, both the creep lifetimes under 50 MPa, 80 MPa, and 100 MPa in the range 853–923 K and the 105 h creep rupture strengths at 853 K, 873 K, and 893 K are predicted. It is demonstrated that the creep properties of the Sb-doped steel are considerably deteriorated but those of the Sb+Ce-doped steel are significantly improved as compared with the undoped steel. Microstructural and microchemical characterizations indicate that the minor addition of Ce can stabilize the microstructure of the steel by segregating to grain boundaries and dislocations, thereby offsetting the deleterious effect of Sb by coarsening the microstructure and weakening the grain boundary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4050 KiB  
Article
Effect of Microstructure on Fracture Toughness and Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior of Ti17 Alloy
by Rong Liang, Yingping Ji, Shijie Wang and Shuzhen Liu
Metals 2016, 6(8), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080186 - 12 Aug 2016
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8259
Abstract
Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr (Ti17) is used extensively in turbine engines, where fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth (FCG) resistance are important properties. However, most research on the alloy was mainly focused on deformation behavior and microstructural evolution, and there have been few studies to examine [...] Read more.
Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr (Ti17) is used extensively in turbine engines, where fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth (FCG) resistance are important properties. However, most research on the alloy was mainly focused on deformation behavior and microstructural evolution, and there have been few studies to examine the effect of microstructure on the properties. Accordingly, the present work studied the influences of the microstructure types (bimodal and lamellar) on the mechanical properties of Ti17 alloy, including fracture toughness, FCG resistance and tensile property. In addition, the fracture modes associated with different microstructures were also analyzed via the observation of the fracture surface. The results found that the lamellar microstructure had a much higher fracture toughness and superior resistance to FCG. These results were discussed in terms of the tortuous crack path and the intrinsic microstructural contributions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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7876 KiB  
Article
Effects of Current Stressing on the Grain Structure and Mechanical Properties of Ag-Alloy Bonding Wires with Various Pd and Au Contents
by Chien-Hsun Chuang, Chih-Hsin Tsai, Yan-Cheng Lin and Hsin-Jung Lin
Metals 2016, 6(8), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080182 - 04 Aug 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 9035
Abstract
Ag-alloy bonding wires containing various Pd and Au elements and traditional 4 N Au and Pd-coated 4 N Cu bonding wires were stressed with a current density of 1.23 × 105 A/cm2 in air. The amounts of annealing twins in the [...] Read more.
Ag-alloy bonding wires containing various Pd and Au elements and traditional 4 N Au and Pd-coated 4 N Cu bonding wires were stressed with a current density of 1.23 × 105 A/cm2 in air. The amounts of annealing twins in the Ag-alloy wires were much higher than those in Au and Pd-coated Cu wires. The percentages of twinned grains in these Ag-alloy wires increased obviously with current stressing. However, the grains in Ag-3Pd and Ag-15Au-3Pd grew moderately under current stressing, in contrast to the dramatic grain growth in the other bonding wires. In addition, the breaking loads and elongations of the various Ag-alloy wires changed slightly, similar to the case of Au wire. The results implied that degradation of the mechanical properties of these annealing twinned Ag-alloy wires due to electromigration was limited. Pd-coated Cu wire was severely oxidized after current stressing for only 1 h in air, which drastically degraded both the breaking load and elongation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4215 KiB  
Article
Correlation between Zn-Rich Phase and Corrosion/Oxidation Behavior of Sn–8Zn–3Bi Alloy
by Xin Zhang, Chong Li, Zhiming Gao, Yongchang Liu, Zongqing Ma, Liming Yu and Huijun Li
Metals 2016, 6(8), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080175 - 25 Jul 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4373
Abstract
The microstructure of Sn–8Zn–3Bi alloy was refined by increasing the solidification rate and the correlation between Zn-rich phase and the corrosion/oxidation behavior of the alloy was investigated. The Zn-rich phase transforms from coarse flakes to fine needles dispersed in the β-Sn matrix with [...] Read more.
The microstructure of Sn–8Zn–3Bi alloy was refined by increasing the solidification rate and the correlation between Zn-rich phase and the corrosion/oxidation behavior of the alloy was investigated. The Zn-rich phase transforms from coarse flakes to fine needles dispersed in the β-Sn matrix with the increase of the cooling rate. The transformation of Zn-rich precipitates enhances the anticorrosive ability of Sn–8Zn–3Bi alloy in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. On the contrary, Sn–8Zn–3Bi alloy with a fine needle-like Zn-rich phase shows poor oxidation resistance under air atmosphere, due to the fast diffusion of Zn atoms in Sn matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4814 KiB  
Article
Effect of Mo Content on Microstructure and Property of Low-Carbon Bainitic Steels
by Haijiang Hu, Guang Xu, Mingxing Zhou and Qing Yuan
Metals 2016, 6(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080173 - 23 Jul 2016
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6711
Abstract
In this work, three low-carbon bainitic steels, with different Mo contents, were designed to investigate the effects of Mo addition on microstructure and mechanical properties. Two-step cooling, i.e., initial accelerated cooling and subsequent slow cooling, was used to obtain the desired bainite microstructure. [...] Read more.
In this work, three low-carbon bainitic steels, with different Mo contents, were designed to investigate the effects of Mo addition on microstructure and mechanical properties. Two-step cooling, i.e., initial accelerated cooling and subsequent slow cooling, was used to obtain the desired bainite microstructure. The results show that the product of strength and elongation first increases and then shows no significant change with increasing Mo. Compared with Mo-free steel, bainite in the Mo-containing steel tends to have a lath-like morphology due to a decrease in the bainitic transformation temperature. More martensite transformation occurs with the increasing Mo, resulting in greater hardness of the steel. Both the strength and elongation of the steel can be enhanced by Mo addition; however, the elongation may decrease with a further increase in Mo. From a practical viewpoint, the content of Mo could be ~0.14 wt. % for the composition design of low-carbon bainitic steels in the present work. To be noted, an optimal scheme may need to consider other situations such as the role of sheet thickness, toughness behavior and so on, which could require changes in the chemistry. Nevertheless, these results provide a reference for the composition design and processing method of low-carbon bainitic steels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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6968 KiB  
Article
Effect of Hydrogen and Strain-Induced Martensite on Mechanical Properties of AISI 304 Stainless Steel
by Sang Hwan Bak, Muhammad Ali Abro and Dong Bok Lee
Metals 2016, 6(7), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070169 - 20 Jul 2016
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7668
Abstract
Plastic deformation and strain-induced martensite (SIM, α′) transformation in metastable austenitic AISI 304 stainless steel were investigated through room temperature tensile tests at strain rates ranging from 2 × 10−6 to 2 × 10−2/s. The amount of SIM was measured [...] Read more.
Plastic deformation and strain-induced martensite (SIM, α′) transformation in metastable austenitic AISI 304 stainless steel were investigated through room temperature tensile tests at strain rates ranging from 2 × 10−6 to 2 × 10−2/s. The amount of SIM was measured on the fractured tensile specimens using a feritscope and magnetic force microscope. Elongation to fracture, tensile strength, hardness, and the amount of SIM increased with decreasing the strain rate. The strain-rate dependence of RT tensile properties was observed to be related to the amount of SIM. Specifically, SIM formed during tensile tests was beneficial in increasing the elongation to fracture, hardness, and tensile strength. Hydrogen suppressed the SIM formation, leading to hydrogen softening and localized brittle fracture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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17711 KiB  
Article
Atmospheric-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking of Grade 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel—Effects of 475 °C Embrittlement and Process Orientation
by Cem Örnek, Safwan A.M. Idris, Pierfranco Reccagni and Dirk L. Engelberg
Metals 2016, 6(7), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070167 - 19 Jul 2016
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7854
Abstract
The effect of 475 °C embrittlement and microstructure process orientation on atmospheric-induced stress corrosion cracking (AISCC) of grade 2205 duplex stainless steel has been investigated. AISCC tests were carried out under salt-laden, chloride-containing deposits, on U-bend samples manufactured in rolling (RD) and transverse [...] Read more.
The effect of 475 °C embrittlement and microstructure process orientation on atmospheric-induced stress corrosion cracking (AISCC) of grade 2205 duplex stainless steel has been investigated. AISCC tests were carried out under salt-laden, chloride-containing deposits, on U-bend samples manufactured in rolling (RD) and transverse directions (TD). The occurrence of selective corrosion and stress corrosion cracking was observed, with samples in TD displaying higher propensity towards AISCC. Strains and tensile stresses were observed in both ferrite and austenite, with similar magnitudes in TD, whereas, larger strains and stresses in austenite in RD. The occurrence of 475 °C embrittlement was related to microstructural changes in the ferrite. Exposure to 475 °C heat treatment for 5 to 10 h resulted in better AISCC resistance, with spinodal decomposition believed to enhance the corrosion properties of the ferrite. The austenite was more susceptible to ageing treatments up to 50 h, with the ferrite becoming more susceptible with ageing in excess of 50 h. Increased susceptibility of the ferrite may be related to the formation of additional precipitates, such as R-phase. The implications of heat treatment at 475 °C and the effect of process orientation are discussed in light of microstructure development and propensity to AISCC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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4358 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Recrystallization and Hot Workability of 316LN Stainless Steel
by Chaoyang Sun, Yu Xiang, Qingjun Zhou, Denis J. Politis, Zhihui Sun and Mengqi Wang
Metals 2016, 6(7), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070152 - 05 Jul 2016
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5711
Abstract
To identify the optimal deformation parameters for 316LN austenitic stainless steel, it is necessary to study the macroscopic deformation and the microstructural evolution behavior simultaneously in order to ascertain the relationship between the two. Isothermal uniaxial compression tests of 316LN were conducted over [...] Read more.
To identify the optimal deformation parameters for 316LN austenitic stainless steel, it is necessary to study the macroscopic deformation and the microstructural evolution behavior simultaneously in order to ascertain the relationship between the two. Isothermal uniaxial compression tests of 316LN were conducted over the temperature range of 950–1150 °C and for the strain rate range of 0.001–10 s−1 using a Gleeble-1500 thermal-mechanical simulator. The microstructural evolution during deformation processes was investigated by studying the constitutive law and dynamic recrystallization behaviors. Dynamic recrystallization volume fraction was introduced to reveal the power dissipation during the microstructural evolution. Processing maps were developed based on the effects of various temperatures, strain rates, and strains, which suggests that power dissipation efficiency increases gradually with increasing temperature and decreasing stain rate. Optimum regimes for the hot deformation of 316LN stainless steel were revealed on conventional hot processing maps and verified effectively through the examination of the microstructure. In addition, the regimes for defects of the product were also interpreted on the conventional hot processing maps. The developed power dissipation efficiency maps allow optimized processing routes to be selected, thus enabling industry producers to effectively control forming variables to enhance practical production process efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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5993 KiB  
Article
Examination of Solubility Models for the Determination of Transition Metals within Liquid Alkali Metals
by Jeremy Isler and Jinsuo Zhang
Metals 2016, 6(7), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070144 - 28 Jun 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5459
Abstract
The experimental solubility of transition metals in liquid alkali metal was compared to the modeled solubility calculated using various equations for solubility. These equations were modeled using the enthalpy calculations of the semi-empirical Miedema model and various entropy calculations. The accuracy of the [...] Read more.
The experimental solubility of transition metals in liquid alkali metal was compared to the modeled solubility calculated using various equations for solubility. These equations were modeled using the enthalpy calculations of the semi-empirical Miedema model and various entropy calculations. The accuracy of the predicted solubility compared to the experimental data is more dependent on which liquid alkali metal is being examined rather than the transition metal solute examined. For liquid lithium the calculated solubility by the model was generally larger than experimental values, while for liquid cesium the modeling solubility was significantly smaller than the experimental values. For liquid sodium, potassium, and rubidium the experimental solubilities were within the range calculated by this study. Few data approached the predicted temperature dependence of solubility and instead most data exhibited a less pronounced temperature dependence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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1807 KiB  
Article
Experimental Verification of Statistically Optimized Parameters for Low-Pressure Cold Spray Coating of Titanium
by Damilola Isaac Adebiyi, Abimbola Patricia Popoola and Ionel Botef
Metals 2016, 6(6), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6060135 - 02 Jun 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5961
Abstract
The cold spray coating process involves many process parameters which make the process very complex, and highly dependent and sensitive to small changes in these parameters. This results in a small operational window of the parameters. Consequently, mathematical optimization of the process parameters [...] Read more.
The cold spray coating process involves many process parameters which make the process very complex, and highly dependent and sensitive to small changes in these parameters. This results in a small operational window of the parameters. Consequently, mathematical optimization of the process parameters is key, not only to achieving deposition but also improving the coating quality. This study focuses on the mathematical identification and experimental justification of the optimum process parameters for cold spray coating of titanium alloy with silicon carbide (SiC). The continuity, momentum and the energy equations governing the flow through the low-pressure cold spray nozzle were solved by introducing a constitutive equation to close the system. This was used to calculate the critical velocity for the deposition of SiC. In order to determine the input temperature that yields the calculated velocity, the distribution of velocity, temperature, and pressure in the cold spray nozzle were analyzed, and the exit values were predicted using the meshing tool of Solidworks. Coatings fabricated using the optimized parameters and some non-optimized parameters are compared. The coating of the CFD-optimized parameters yielded lower porosity and higher hardness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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9366 KiB  
Article
Microstructure Evolution and High-Temperature Compressibility of Modified Two-Step Strain-Induced Melt Activation-Processed Al-Mg-Si Aluminum Alloy
by Chia-Wei Lin, Fei-Yi Hung, Truan-Sheng Lui and Li-Hui Chen
Metals 2016, 6(5), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6050113 - 13 May 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6821
Abstract
A two-step strain-induced melt activation (TS-SIMA) process that omits the cold working step of the traditional strain-induced melt activation (SIMA) process is proposed for 6066 Al-Mg-Si alloy to obtain fine, globular, and uniform grains with a short-duration salt bath. The results show that [...] Read more.
A two-step strain-induced melt activation (TS-SIMA) process that omits the cold working step of the traditional strain-induced melt activation (SIMA) process is proposed for 6066 Al-Mg-Si alloy to obtain fine, globular, and uniform grains with a short-duration salt bath. The results show that increasing the salt bath temperature and duration leads to a high liquid phase fraction and a high degree of spheroidization. However, an excessive salt bath temperature leads to rapid grain growth and generates melting voids. The initial degree of dynamic recrystallization, which depends on the extrusion ratio, affects the globular grain size. With an increasing extrusion ratio, the dynamic recrystallization becomes more severe and the dynamic recrystallized grain size becomes smaller. It results in the globular grains becomes smaller. The major growth mechanism of globular grains is Ostwald ripening. Furthermore, high-temperature compressibility can be improved by the TS-SIMA process. After a 4 min salt bath at 620 °C, the high-temperature compression ratio become higher than that of a fully annealed alloy. The results show that the proposed TS-SIMA process has great potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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7053 KiB  
Article
Formation and Disruption of W-Phase in High-Entropy Alloys
by Sephira Riva, Chung M. Fung, Justin R. Searle, Ronald N. Clark, Nicholas P. Lavery, Stephen G. R. Brown and Kirill V. Yusenko
Metals 2016, 6(5), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6050106 - 06 May 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6089
Abstract
High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are single-phase systems prepared from equimolar or near-equimolar concentrations of at least five principal elements. The combination of high mixing entropy, severe lattice distortion, sluggish diffusion and cocktail effect favours the formation of simple phases—usually a bcc or fcc matrix [...] Read more.
High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are single-phase systems prepared from equimolar or near-equimolar concentrations of at least five principal elements. The combination of high mixing entropy, severe lattice distortion, sluggish diffusion and cocktail effect favours the formation of simple phases—usually a bcc or fcc matrix with minor inclusions of ordered binary intermetallics. HEAs have been proposed for applications in which high temperature stability (including mechanical and chemical stability under high temperature and high mechanical impact) is required. On the other hand, the major challenge to overcome for HEAs to become commercially attractive is the achievement of lightweight alloys of extreme hardness and low brittleness. The multicomponent AlCrCuScTi alloy was prepared and characterized using powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), scanning-electron microscope (SEM) and atomic-force microscope equipped with scanning Kelvin probe (AFM/SKP) techniques. Results show that the formation of complex multicomponent ternary intermetallic compounds upon heating plays a key role in phase evolution. The formation and degradation of W-phase, Al2Cu3Sc, in the AlCrCuScTi alloy plays a crucial role in its properties and stability. Analysis of as-melted and annealed alloy suggests that the W-phase is favoured kinetically, but thermodynamically unstable. The disruption of the W-phase in the alloy matrix has a positive effect on hardness (890 HV), density (4.83 g·cm−3) and crack propagation. The hardness/density ratio obtained for this alloy shows a record value in comparison with ordinary heavy refractory HEAs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process-Structure-Property Relationships in Metals)
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