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14 pages, 12039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ceramic Conversion Treatment of Commercial Pure Titanium with a Pre-Deposited Vanadium Layer

by Zhenxue Zhang, Rui Deng and Hanshan Dong

Metals 2023, 13(11), 1859; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13111859 - 07 Nov 2023

Viewed by 816

Abstract

Titanium is characterized by poor wear resistance which restricts its application. Ceramic conversion treatment (CCT) is used to modify the surface; however, it is a time-consuming process. In this work, a thin vanadium layer was pre-deposited on the commercial pure titanium (CPTi) samples’ [...] Read more.

Titanium is characterized by poor wear resistance which restricts its application. Ceramic conversion treatment (CCT) is used to modify the surface; however, it is a time-consuming process. In this work, a thin vanadium layer was pre-deposited on the commercial pure titanium (CPTi) samples’ surface, and it increased the oxygen absorption significantly and assisted in obtaining a much thicker oxide layer than those samples without a V layer at the treatment temperatures of 620 °C and 660 °C. The oxidation of the samples pre-deposited with the V layer had a much higher oxidation rate, and V was evenly distributed in the oxide layer. After CCT, all samples had a low wear volume and stable coefficient of friction in comparison to the untreated CPTi sample. A slightly higher wear area in the wear track was observed on the V pre-deposited samples than those samples without vanadium, especially those with a thicker oxide layer (>4 µm). This might be associated with defects in a thicker oxide layer and insufficient support from a shallower oxygen diffusion zone or hard debris created at the initial stage. Vanadium in the oxide layer reduced the contact angles of the surface and increased the wettability significantly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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16 pages, 9164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regularities of Changes in the Structure of Different Phases of Deformed Zirconium Alloys as a Result of Raising the Annealing Temperature According to Texture Analysis Data

by Margarita Isaenkova, Olga Krymskaya, Kristina Klyukova, Anastasya Bogomolova, Ilya Kozlov, Pavel Dzhumaev, Vladimir Fesenko and Roman Svetogorov

Metals 2023, 13(10), 1784; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13101784 - 21 Oct 2023

Viewed by 758

Abstract

Based on the data of synchrotron and electron microscopic studies of deformed and annealed Russian zirconium alloys, the possibility of analyzing the structural-phase state and crystallographic texture of individual phases has been demonstrated. A qualitative and quantitative phase analysis of deformed and annealed [...] Read more.

Based on the data of synchrotron and electron microscopic studies of deformed and annealed Russian zirconium alloys, the possibility of analyzing the structural-phase state and crystallographic texture of individual phases has been demonstrated. A qualitative and quantitative phase analysis of deformed and annealed tubes made of Zr-Nb-(Sn-Fe-O) alloys was carried out using diffraction patterns obtained with synchrotron radiation. The main α-Zr phase and the following additional phases: β-Nb, β-Zr, and the Laves phase (intermetallic compound Zr(Nb,

{Fe)}_{2}

), were found in the alloys. According to the results of texture analysis of all phases present in the alloy, the mechanisms of plastic deformation, recrystallization, and phase transformations of the main and additional phases were established. It is shown that during plastic deformation of the Zr-1%Nb alloy, a dynamic phase transformation β-Nb→α-Zr→β-Zr is observed. It is established that during recrystallization, larger grains of α-Zr are misoriented relative to the deformed matrix by rotating the prismatic axes around the basal axes by 30°, while fine grains are improved by polygonization and maintain the orientation of the deformed matrix. Processes for changing the orientation of grains of additional phases as a result of high-temperature annealing are also considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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21 pages, 3700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment of Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing and Conventional Machining of Aluminum Alloy Flange

by Dileep Kumar, Suresh Palanisamy, Kannoorpatti Krishnan and Md Morshed Alam

Metals 2023, 13(10), 1684; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13101684 - 01 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1935

Abstract

Cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) is generally used to repair worn components and build complex on-demand parts by depositing metal powder layer-wise using compressed air. Previous studies on CSAM were focused on printing parameters, materials properties, and printed part mechanical performance. However, the [...] Read more.

Cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) is generally used to repair worn components and build complex on-demand parts by depositing metal powder layer-wise using compressed air. Previous studies on CSAM were focused on printing parameters, materials properties, and printed part mechanical performance. However, the energy consumption and environmental impacts of CSAM processes have not yet been investigated, which are essential factors for sustainable manufacturing. This study aims to investigate the carbon footprint of the CSAM process and compare it with conventional machining processes and other additive manufacturing. The life cycle assessment methodology was followed to calculate the carbon footprint of a pipe flange, considering rod or tube as a feedstock. Results revealed that the machined flange from the tube had the lowest CO_2-eq emissions of 31 kg CO_2-eq due to low rough machining energy consumption and scrap production, compared to the machined flange from a rod and a printed flange from powder. Moreover, the life cycle carbon emissions increased by 8% and 19% in case of the printed and machined flanges, with uncertainties of 4% and 9%, respectively, when changing feedstock CO₂ emissions. From a regional perspective, the CSAM process was responsible for the lowest CO_2-eq emissions in Tasmania and South Australia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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13 pages, 2827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crystallography of Recrystallization in Al and Cu with Fiber Texture

by Mikhail L. Lobanov, Maria A. Zorina, Pavel L. Reznik, Andrey A. Redikultsev, Vladimir I. Pastukhov and Maxim S. Karabanalov

Metals 2023, 13(10), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13101639 - 24 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 846

Abstract

The interest in the crystallography of structural transformations is driven by emerging capabilities in texture control and by the resulting anisotropy of the physical-mechanical properties of functional materials and products. The recrystallization texture of cold-drawn Cu and Al samples after recrystallization annealing at [...] Read more.

The interest in the crystallography of structural transformations is driven by emerging capabilities in texture control and by the resulting anisotropy of the physical-mechanical properties of functional materials and products. The recrystallization texture of cold-drawn Cu and Al samples after recrystallization annealing at different temperatures was studied using EBSD. Equivalent deformation textures of Al and Cu are transformed into different recrystallization textures. The recrystallization nuclei in Al are formed at high-angle boundaries between deformed grains close to Σ3 CSL boundaries. The recrystallization nuclei in Cu are formed inside the deformed grains at twin boundaries (Σ3). The recrystallization nuclei in both Al and Cu are the crystallites whose boundaries approximately correspond to misorientation rotated about the <772> axis at an angle of 52–70° from a deformed matrix. The physical interpretation of the results will allow for the development of new models and the enhancement of existing models of texture inheritance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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14 pages, 7909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Wear Resistance of Laser-Treated and Slow Cooled AlSi10Mg-(x)Ni Alloys

by Danusa Moura, Guilherme Gouveia and José Spinelli

Metals 2023, 13(8), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13081426 - 09 Aug 2023

Viewed by 756

Abstract

This study examined the solidification features and wear of AlSi10Mg(-Ni) alloy samples generated under various conditions. Additions were varied from 0 to 3 wt% Ni while maintaining Si and Mg contents. All samples were directionally solidified (DS) and laser treated using surface laser [...] Read more.

This study examined the solidification features and wear of AlSi10Mg(-Ni) alloy samples generated under various conditions. Additions were varied from 0 to 3 wt% Ni while maintaining Si and Mg contents. All samples were directionally solidified (DS) and laser treated using surface laser remelting (LSR). Both DS and LSR samples were characterized by a number of methods, including the following: thermal analysis, optical microscopy, stereomicroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), wear tests, and Vickers hardness. Ranges for cooling rates, dendritic spacing and hardness, respectively, were from 0.4 to 13.3 K/s, from 77 to 388 μm, from 71 to 93 HV for the DS samples and from 4.3 × 10⁴ to 8.7 × 10⁴ K/s, from 1.0 to 2.0 μm, and from 114 to 143 HV for the LSR (100 J/mm²). The solidification kinetics had a large impact on the solidified samples, allowing a representative range of microstructures and morphologies to be examined in terms of wear. The 1% Ni alloy had the highest wear resistance among all the DS samples under slow cooling and the short-term wear test (10 min/0.5 N), while the LSR samples showed similar wear resistances regardless of the Ni content. The uniform dispersions of Si and Al₃Ni forming intercellular dense walls at the top of the laser molten pool together with their rod-like morphologies and reduced dendrite spacing of less than 2 μm, improved bonding with the matrix, resulting in higher and more consistent wear resistance of the laser treated surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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11 pages, 2850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Characterization of AA8006 Aluminum Alloy through Cold Free Forming Test

by Gianluca Parodo, Gillo Giuliano, Luca Sorrentino and Wilma Polini

Metals 2023, 13(6), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061081 - 07 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1066

Abstract

In this work, for the first time thin, sheets of AA8006 aluminum alloy, that are commonly used for food packaging, were mechanically characterized through an unconventional free-forming technique that was performed at room temperature. This technique constitutes an economically effective solution to determine [...] Read more.

In this work, for the first time thin, sheets of AA8006 aluminum alloy, that are commonly used for food packaging, were mechanically characterized through an unconventional free-forming technique that was performed at room temperature. This technique constitutes an economically effective solution to determine the constitutive equation of a metal sheet subjected to two-axes stresses. This state of stress reproduces the behavior of the material during the forming process better than the more traditional tensile test, which involves uniaxial stress. Specifically, the material constants were determined by using a simplified analytical model applied to the results of the experimental tests of the free forming process carried out at room temperature and constant pressure. Therefore, the obtained material constant values were used to simulate the same free-forming tests using FEM. In conclusion, the numerical results were in agreement with the experimental ones, thus confirming the goodness of the developed numerical model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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12 pages, 11882 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Carbon Content on the Properties of Novel Nitrogen-Free Austenitic Stainless Steel with High Hardness Prepared via Metal Injection Molding

by Xin Luo, Jia Lou, Hao He, Chu Wu, Yuhang Huang, Na Su and Shibo Li

Metals 2023, 13(2), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13020403 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1257

Abstract

A novel nitrogen-free austenitic stainless steel with a hardness of >200 HV was developed using metal injection molding (MIM), and the effects of graphite addition on the sintering behavior, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of heat-treated samples were investigated. The results show that [...] Read more.

A novel nitrogen-free austenitic stainless steel with a hardness of >200 HV was developed using metal injection molding (MIM), and the effects of graphite addition on the sintering behavior, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of heat-treated samples were investigated. The results show that a certain amount of graphite addition increases the relative density to >98%. In samples with the addition of 0–500 ppm graphite, large grain-boundary precipitates reduced corrosion resistance and ductility. In contrast, when graphite addition was increased to 750–1500 ppm, fine precipitates, which exhibited coherent lattice relationships with the matrix, were uniformly distributed within the grain and grain boundaries; this significantly improved the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The tensile strength and elongation intervals were 546.94–608.62 MPa and 29.68–24.63%, respectively. To prevent overburning, samples with a graphite content higher than 3000 ppm were sintered at a lower temperature, resulting in a higher porosity and lower performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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14 pages, 2171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parameters Optimization for Electropolishing Titanium by Using Taguchi-Based Pareto ANOVA

by Gunawan Setia Prihandana, Tutik Sriani, Mohd Fadzil Jamaludin, Farazila Yusof, Budi Arifvianto and Muslim Mahardika

Metals 2023, 13(2), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13020392 - 14 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1705

Abstract

Material removal rate in electropolishing is often overlooked because this process generally addressed for surface finish; however, it is paramount on metallic sheet machining possessed with intricate geometry. Electropolishing removes metallic material from the surface of a workpiece based on anodic dissolution process. [...] Read more.

Material removal rate in electropolishing is often overlooked because this process generally addressed for surface finish; however, it is paramount on metallic sheet machining possessed with intricate geometry. Electropolishing removes metallic material from the surface of a workpiece based on anodic dissolution process. The material removal rate depends on the current density, electrolyte, the strength of the magnetic field, polishing time and temperature. In this study, three factors of applied voltage, electrolyte composition and magnetic field were evaluated using Taguchi approach to improve the material removal rate in the electropolishing of a pure titanium (99.5%) workpiece. The experiments were undertaken as per Taguchi L₉ (3³) orthogonal array, and further analyzed using Pareto ANOVA to determine the most significant parameter. It was found that the optimum parametric combination to maximize the material removal rate were, applied voltage of 15 V, ethanol concentration of 20 vol.% and magnetic field of 0.51 T. The experimental results show that the responses in electropolishing process can be improved through this approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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19 pages, 10366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Alloying of Ball-Milled Cu–Ti–B Elemental Powder with the In Situ Formation of Titanium Diboride

by Uttam Kumar Murmu, Abhishek Ghosh, Asiful H. Seikh, Ibrahim A. Alnaser, Hany S. Abdo, Naif S. Alowaysi and Manojit Ghosh

Metals 2022, 12(12), 2108; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12122108 - 08 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1347

Abstract

This paper represents the fabrication and characterization (microstructural, mechanical, and electrical) of Cu-2wt% B-4 wt% Ti and Cu-5wt% B-10wt% Ti alloy from the ball-milled Cu, Ti, and B powders. The in situ formation of TiB₂ was also discussed in the light of [...] Read more.

This paper represents the fabrication and characterization (microstructural, mechanical, and electrical) of Cu-2wt% B-4 wt% Ti and Cu-5wt% B-10wt% Ti alloy from the ball-milled Cu, Ti, and B powders. The in situ formation of TiB₂ was also discussed in the light of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). This present work investigates the effect of various parameters on powder production and the formation of in situ TiB₂ through the thermo-mechanical route. The apparent activation energy during metastable phase formation for the two types of alloy composites has been calculated using the Johnson-Mehl-Avramani (JMA) equation and found to be 567.46 and 626.37 (KJ/mol), respectively. However, the findings of this study indicate the mechanical properties of the composite are due to the in situ formation of TiB₂ particles in the Cu matrix. The properties of the composites after heat treatment were discussed employing mechanical and electrical properties and measured ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (~375 MPa), yield strength (~300 MPa), and hardness (~150 Hv) for a higher percentage of Ti and B addition. The electrical conductivity also decreased to 53% IACS as Ti negatively impacts conductivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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13 pages, 2140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr Is Biosafe Alloy for Building of Ecofriendly Greenhouse Framework of New Generation

by Ruslan M. Sarimov, Alexey P. Glinushkin, Mikhail A. Sevostyanov, Sergey V. Konushkin, Dmitry A. Serov, Maxim E. Astashev, Vasily N. Lednev, Denis V. Yanykin, Alexey V. Sibirev, Alexander A. Smirnov, Ilya V. Baimler, Alexandr V. Simakin, Nikolay F. Bunkin and Sergey V. Gudkov

Metals 2022, 12(12), 2007; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12122007 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1008

Abstract

The search for environmentally neutral construction materials is an important aim of science from the middle of the XX century. We elaborated the method of the smelting of the new alloy Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr. The Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr was a β-phase alloy with an ~550 MPa yield [...] Read more.

The search for environmentally neutral construction materials is an important aim of science from the middle of the XX century. We elaborated the method of the smelting of the new alloy Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr. The Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr was a β-phase alloy with an ~550 MPa yield strength, an ~700 MPa of ultimate strength and >50 GPa Young’s modulus. The Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr alloy did not generate reactive oxygen species in contradistinction to the widely used NiTi. The biocompatibility of Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr was studied. The human cell line cultured on the alloy showed a high mitotic index (2.2%) and a low cytotoxicity (<4% dead cells). The 30 days of the cultivation of the plants near the Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr blanks did not influence the morphology and plants area. Therefore, Ti-20Nb-10Ta-5Zr may be considered as a material for the manufacture of environmentally neutral greenhouses of a new generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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11 pages, 7067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of C and Nb on Pore-Grain Boundary Separation Behavior during Sintering of 420 Stainless Steel

by Tao Wen, Hao He, Jia Lou, Mengqi Gan, Xin Luo, Yuhang Huang and Wei Xu

Metals 2022, 12(7), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12071186 - 12 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1237

Abstract

This study investigated the evolution of density, grain size, and pore characteristics during the sintering of metal injection molding (MIM) 420, 420 + 0.3C and pre-alloyed 420Nb stainless steel powders. The results show that C promotes the reduction of oxides on the surface [...] Read more.

This study investigated the evolution of density, grain size, and pore characteristics during the sintering of metal injection molding (MIM) 420, 420 + 0.3C and pre-alloyed 420Nb stainless steel powders. The results show that C promotes the reduction of oxides on the surface of stainless steel, thereby accelerating sintering at 1330 °C, which is the initial sintering stage of MIM 420. MIM 420Nb showed the slowest sintering rate due to the strong binding force between Nb and C. At 1350 °C, the sintering densities of MIM 420 and 420 + 0.3C slightly improved, whereas their grain sizes grew significantly. Scanning electron microscopy images show grain boundary-pore separation, which significantly retarded the grain boundary diffusion mechanism and hence reduced the densification rate. The addition of C accelerated the pore-grain boundary separation; thus MIM 420 + 0.3C showed the lowest density at this temperature among the materials analyzed in this study. Nb suppressed the grain growth rate; thus, MIM 420Nb exhibited the highest density among the three materials. At 1370 °C, MIM 420 + 0.3C reached the highest density owing to the creation of a liquid phase. Theoretical calculations proved that there is a linear relationship between the grain boundary area per unit volume and the interfacial pore area per unit volume. Furthermore, when the ratio of grain size to pore size is 28, the contact probability between the grain boundaries and pores is significantly reduced to approximately 10%, leading to an extremely slow densification rate and a rapid grain growth rate, which is consistent with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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10 pages, 2926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Jet Penetration Performance of a Shaped Charge Liner Prepared by Metal Injection Molding

by Zheyu He, Yi Cheng, Hao He, Chuanfeng An, Yuqing Huang, Xiang Zhang and Yimin Li

Metals 2022, 12(6), 1021; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12061021 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1567

Abstract

The metal injection molding (MIM) method was applied to manufacture a shaped charge liner (SCL) used for petroleum perforating bombs. Its application could overcome the drawback of heterogeneous density distribution prepared using the traditional powder metallurgy and spinning process. The sintering results showed [...] Read more.

The metal injection molding (MIM) method was applied to manufacture a shaped charge liner (SCL) used for petroleum perforating bombs. Its application could overcome the drawback of heterogeneous density distribution prepared using the traditional powder metallurgy and spinning process. The sintering results showed that because of the limitation in the sintering temperature, the relative density of the W–Cu alloy shaped charge liners prepared by metal injection molding (MIM W–Cu SCLs) ranged from 48.05% at 1050 °C to 52.52% at 1100 °C, which was far below those prepared by spinning. Further increase to higher temperature led to the W–Cu separation, cracks, and distortion of the SCL. The explosive test proved that the shaped charge liners prepared by metal injection molding (MIM SCLs) could achieve comparable or even better penetration performance than those prepared by spinning. The particle size of tungsten played a significant role in the penetration performance in which the sample prepared from a −250-mesh tungsten powder showed the highest penetration depth, which was 18.44% deeper than that of the spinning process. From the observation of ballistic holes, the jet of the MIM SCL was composed of dispersed W–Cu particles without a slug. The diameters of the holes bored by the MIM SCLs were larger than those SCLs produced by spinning, which proved that the MIM SCL jet is noncoherent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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Review

Jump to: Research

47 pages, 121459 KiB

Open AccessReview

Friction Stir Welding/Processing of Various Metals with Working Tools of Different Materials and Its Peculiarities for Titanium Alloys: A Review

by Andrey Chumaevskii, Alihan Amirov, Aleksey Ivanov, Valery Rubtsov and Evgeny Kolubaev

Metals 2023, 13(5), 970; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050970 - 17 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2084

Abstract

A review of the state of research in the field of friction stir welding and processing has been carried out. The features of plastic flow in friction stir welding and their connection with the processes of adhesion friction are shown. The main direction [...] Read more.

A review of the state of research in the field of friction stir welding and processing has been carried out. The features of plastic flow in friction stir welding and their connection with the processes of adhesion friction are shown. The main direction of research is related to the features of friction stir welding of titanium alloys. Special attention is paid to the selection of working tool materials from various alloys for friction stir welding and the processing of titanium alloys. The main advantages and disadvantages of applying different types of tools for friction stir welding of titanium alloys are shown. Different mechanisms of tool wear in friction stir welding associated with the interaction of processed material and tools are demonstrated. Information on the influence of tool and material interaction at welding on the mechanical properties and operational characteristics of obtained joints is given. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Non-ferrous Alloys: Processing, Microstructure and Properties)

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