Research

18 pages, 27076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructures and Phases in Electron Beam Additively Manufactured Ti-Al-Mo-Zr-V/CuAl9Mn2 Alloy

by Anna Zykova, Aleksandra Nikolaeva, Aleksandr Panfilov, Andrey Vorontsov, Alisa Nikonenko, Artem Dobrovolsky, Andrey Chumaevskii, Denis Gurianov, Andrey Filippov, Natalya Semenchuk, Nikolai Savchenko, Evgeny Kolubaev and Sergei Tarasov

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4279; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124279 - 09 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1009

Abstract

Electron beam additive manufacturing from dissimilar metal wires was used to intermix 5, 10 and 15 vol.% of Ti-Al-Mo-Z-V titanium alloy with CuAl9Mn2 bronze on a stainless steel substrate. The resulting alloys were subjected to investigations into their microstructural, phase and mechanical characteristics. [...] Read more.

Electron beam additive manufacturing from dissimilar metal wires was used to intermix 5, 10 and 15 vol.% of Ti-Al-Mo-Z-V titanium alloy with CuAl9Mn2 bronze on a stainless steel substrate. The resulting alloys were subjected to investigations into their microstructural, phase and mechanical characteristics. It was shown that different microstructures were formed in an alloy containing 5 vol.% titanium alloy, as well as others containing 10 and 15 vol.%. The first was characterized by structural components such as solid solution, eutectic intermetallic compound TiCu₂Al and coarse grains of γ₁-Al₄Cu₉. It had enhanced strength and demonstrated steady oxidation wear in sliding tests. The other two alloys also contained large flower-like Ti(Cu,Al)₂ dendrites that appeared due to the thermal decomposition of γ₁-Al₄Cu₉. This structural transformation resulted in catastrophic embrittlement of the composite and changing of wear mechanism from oxidative to abrasive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 22925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decarburization of Wire-Arc Additively Manufactured ER70S-6 Steel

by Aprilia Aprilia, Wengang Zhai, Yibo Guo, Aishwarya, Robert Shandro and Wei Zhou

Materials 2023, 16(10), 3635; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103635 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1447

Abstract

Decarburization is an unwanted carbon-loss phenomenon on the surfaces of a material when they are exposed to oxidizing environments at elevated temperatures. Decarburization of steels after heat treatment has been widely studied and reported. However, up to now, there has not been any [...] Read more.

Decarburization is an unwanted carbon-loss phenomenon on the surfaces of a material when they are exposed to oxidizing environments at elevated temperatures. Decarburization of steels after heat treatment has been widely studied and reported. However, up to now, there has not been any systematic study on the decarburization of additively manufactured parts. Wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an efficient additive manufacturing process for producing large engineering parts. As the parts produced by WAAM are usually large in size, the use of a vacuum environment to prevent decarburization is not always feasible. Therefore, there is a need to study the decarburization of WAAM-produced parts, especially after the heat treatment processes. This study investigated the decarburization of a WAAM-produced ER70S-6 steel using both the as-printed material and samples heat-treated at different temperatures (800 °C, 850 °C, 900 °C, and 950 °C) for different durations (30 min, 60 min, and 90 min). Furthermore, numerical simulation was carried out using Thermo-Calc computational software to predict the carbon concentration profiles of the steel during the heat treatment processes. Decarburization was found to occur not only in the heat-treated samples but also on the surfaces of the as-printed parts (despite the use of Ar for shielding). The decarburization depth was found to increase with an increase in heat treatment temperature or duration. The part heat-treated at the lowest temperature of 800 °C for merely 30 min was observed to have a large decarburization depth of about 200 μm. For the same heating duration of 30 min, an increase in temperature of 150 °C to 950 °C increased the decarburization depth drastically by 150% to 500 μm. This study serves well to demonstrate the need for further study to control or minimize decarburization for the purpose of ensuring the quality and reliability of additively manufactured engineering components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 18906 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Micron- and Nanosized Alloy Particles Made by Electric Explosion of W/Cu-Zn and W/Cu/Ni-Cr Intertwined Wires for 3D Extrusion Feedstock

by Marat Lerner, Konstantin Suliz, Aleksandr Pervikov and Sergei Tarasov

Materials 2023, 16(3), 955; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030955 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1282

Abstract

A novel approach to electric explosion of intertwined wires to obtain homogeneous powder mixtures intended for preparing feedstock for extrusion 3D printing has been applied. The powder were composed of spherical micron- and nano-sized W/Cu particles in-situ alloyed by Zn and Ni during [...] Read more.

A novel approach to electric explosion of intertwined wires to obtain homogeneous powder mixtures intended for preparing feedstock for extrusion 3D printing has been applied. The powder were composed of spherical micron- and nano-sized W/Cu particles in-situ alloyed by Zn and Ni during electric explosion of intertwined dissimilar metal wires is offered. The mean particle size measured by micron-sized particles was not more than 20 μm. The average number size of these particles was 3 μm and it was dependent on the energy input. The powders contained phases such as α-W, β-W/W₃O as well as FCC α-Cu(Zn) and α-Cu(Ni) solid solutions with the crystalline lattice parameters 3.629 and 3.61 A, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 8896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacturing of Pure Copper with Electron Beam Melting and the Effect of Thermal and Abrasive Post-Processing on Microstructure and Electric Conductivity

by Sandra Megahed, Florian Fischer, Martin Nell, Joy Forsmark, Franco Leonardi, Leyi Zhu, Kay Hameyer and Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum

Materials 2023, 16(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010073 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1414

Abstract

Due to the increasing demand for electrification in the automotive sector, the interest in the manufacturing and processing of pure Copper (Cu; purity 99.99%) is also increasing. Laser-based technologies have proven to be challenging due to Cu’s high optical reflectivity. Processing pure Cu [...] Read more.

Due to the increasing demand for electrification in the automotive sector, the interest in the manufacturing and processing of pure Copper (Cu; purity 99.99%) is also increasing. Laser-based technologies have proven to be challenging due to Cu’s high optical reflectivity. Processing pure Cu with Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is a promising manufacturing route, allowing for high design freedom. The highest priority is to achieve outstanding thermal and electric conductivity in manufactured Cu components. Chemical contamination or manufacturing defects, such as porosity, significantly reduce the thermal and electric conductivity. The literature on post-processing (thermal and abrasive) of additively manufactured Cu is scarce. Therefore, this study discusses the correlation between as built and heat treated microstructure, as well as surface roughness on the EBM electric conductivity. EBSD analysis is performed to analyze the effect of microstructure on electric conductivity. The effect of sandblasting and vibratory finishing on surface roughness and electric conductivity is investigated. Additionally, the samples are mechanically tested in terms of hardness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 9084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Preheating on the Residual Stress and Material Properties of Inconel 939 Processed by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Martin Malý, Klára Nopová, Lenka Klakurková, Ondřej Adam, Libor Pantělejev and Daniel Koutný

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6360; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186360 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1451

Abstract

One of the main limitations of laser powder bed fusion technology is the residual stress (RS) introduced into the material by the local heating of the laser beam. RS restricts the processability of some materials and causes shape distortions in the process. Powder [...] Read more.

One of the main limitations of laser powder bed fusion technology is the residual stress (RS) introduced into the material by the local heating of the laser beam. RS restricts the processability of some materials and causes shape distortions in the process. Powder bed preheating is a commonly used technique for RS mitigation. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of powder bed preheating in the range of room temperature to 400 °C on RS, macrostructure, microstructure, mechanical properties, and properties of the unfused powder of the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 939. The effect of base plate preheating on RS was determined by an indirect method using deformation of the bridge-shaped specimens. Inconel 939 behaved differently than titanium and aluminum alloys when preheated at high temperatures. Preheating at high temperatures resulted in higher RS, higher 0.2% proof stress and ultimate strength, lower elongation at brake, and higher material hardness. The increased RSs and the change in mechanical properties are attributed to changes in the microstructure. Preheating resulted in a larger melt pool, increased the width of columnar grains, and led to evolution of the carbide phase. The most significant microstructure change was in the increase of the size and occurrence of the carbide phase when higher preheating was applied. Furthermore, it was detected that the evolution of the carbide phase strongly corresponds to the build time when high-temperature preheating is applied. Rapid oxidation of the unfused powder was not detected by EDX or XRD analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 11513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aluminum Bronze/Udimet 500 Composites Prepared by Electron-Beam Additive Double-Wire-Feed Manufacturing

by Anna Zykova, Andrey Chumaevskii, Aleksandr Panfilov, Andrey Vorontsov, Aleksandra Nikolaeva, Kseniya Osipovich, Anastasija Gusarova, Valentina Chebodaeva, Sergey Nikonov, Denis Gurianov, Andrey Filippov, Artem Dobrovolsky, Evgeny Kolubaev and Sergei Tarasov

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6270; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186270 - 09 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1552

Abstract

Novel composite CuA19Mn2/Udimet-500 alloy walls with different content of the Udimet 500 were built using electron-beam double-wire-feed additive manufacturing. Intermixing both metals within the melted pool resulted in dissolving nickel and forcing out the aluminum from bronze. The resulting phases were NiAl particles [...] Read more.

Novel composite CuA19Mn2/Udimet-500 alloy walls with different content of the Udimet 500 were built using electron-beam double-wire-feed additive manufacturing. Intermixing both metals within the melted pool resulted in dissolving nickel and forcing out the aluminum from bronze. The resulting phases were NiAl particles and grains, M₂₃C₆/NiAl core/shell particles and Cu-Ni-Al solid solution. Precipitation of these phases resulted in the increased hardness and tensile strength as well as reduced ductility of the composite alloys. Such a hardening resulted in improving the wear resistance as compared to that of source aluminum bronze. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 14645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Heat Input, Annealing, and Deformation Treatment on Structure and Mechanical Properties of Electron Beam Additive Manufactured (EBAM) Silicon Bronze

by Andrey Filippov, Nikolay Shamarin, Evgeny Moskvichev, Nikolai Savchenko, Evgeny Kolubaev, Ekaterina Khoroshko and Sergei Tarasov

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3209; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093209 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1403

Abstract

Electron beam additive wire-feed manufacturing of Cu-3wt.%S-0.8wt.%Mn bronze thin wall on a stainless steel substrate has been carried out at heat input levels of 0.19, 0.25, and 0.31 kJ/mm. The microstructures of as-deposited metal ranged from low aspect ratio columnar with equiaxed grain [...] Read more.

Electron beam additive wire-feed manufacturing of Cu-3wt.%S-0.8wt.%Mn bronze thin wall on a stainless steel substrate has been carried out at heat input levels of 0.19, 0.25, and 0.31 kJ/mm. The microstructures of as-deposited metal ranged from low aspect ratio columnar with equiaxed grain layers to zig-zagged and high aspect ratio columnar, as depended on the heat input. Post-deposition annealing at 900 °C for 6 h resulted in recrystallization of the high aspect ratio columnar grains with further grain growth by boundary migration. Pre-deformation by 10% thickness reduction and then annealing at 900 °C for 6 h also allowed obtaining recrystallized grain structures with less fraction of twin boundaries but higher fraction of high-angle ones, as compared to those of only annealed sample. Pre-deformation and ensuing annealing allowed simultaneous increasing of the ultimate tensile strength and strain-to-fracture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 7011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Features of Microstructure and Texture Formation of Large-Sized Blocks of C11000 Copper Produced by Electron Beam Wire-Feed Additive Technology

by Kseniya Osipovich, Andrey Vorontsov, Andrey Chumaevskii, Evgeny Moskvichev, Ivan Zakharevich, Artem Dobrovolsky, Alexander Sudarikov, Anna Zykova, Valery Rubtsov and Evgeny Kolubaev

Materials 2022, 15(3), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030814 - 21 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

The paper investigated the possibility of obtaining large-sized blocks of C11000 copper on stainless steel substrates via electron beam wire-feed additive technology. The features of the microstructure and grain texture formation and their influence on the mechanical properties and anisotropy were revealed. A [...] Read more.

The paper investigated the possibility of obtaining large-sized blocks of C11000 copper on stainless steel substrates via electron beam wire-feed additive technology. The features of the microstructure and grain texture formation and their influence on the mechanical properties and anisotropy were revealed. A strategy of printing large-sized C11000 copper was determined, which consists of perimeter formation followed by the filling of the internal layer volume. This allows us to avoid the formation of defects in the form of drops, underflows and macrogeometry disturbances. It was found that the deposition of the first layers of C11000 copper on a steel substrate results in rapid heat dissipation and the diffusion of steel components (Fe, Cr and Ni) into the C11000 layers, which promotes the formation of equiaxed grains of size 8.94 ± 0.04 μm. As the blocks grow, directional grain growth occurs close to the <101> orientation, whose size reaches 1086.45 ± 57.13 μm. It is shown that the additive growing of large-sized C11000 copper leads to the anisotropy of mechanical properties due to non-uniform grain structure. The tensile strength in the opposite growing direction near the substrate is 394 ± 10 MPa and decreases to 249 ± 10 MPa as the C11000 blocks grows. In the growing direction, the tensile strength is 145 ± 10 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Metals and Their Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Published Papers (8 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI