Journal of Marine Science and Engineering

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4 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments

by Carlos Coelho

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(7), 1433; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11071433 - 18 Jul 2023

Viewed by 667

Abstract

Worldwide, coasts present increasing erosion trends, regardless of the investments made to mitigate them [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

Research

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23 pages, 7520 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Coastal Protection Strategies at Costa da Caparica (Portugal): Nourishments and Structural Interventions

by Francisco Sancho

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(6), 1159; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11061159 - 31 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1629

Abstract

Costa da Caparica beach, in Portugal, has suffered from chronic erosion for the last 50 years, a phenomenon that has been countered by various management interventions. This study aims at comparing sixteen possible interventions, thus identifying the most effective one(s) in terms of [...] Read more.

Costa da Caparica beach, in Portugal, has suffered from chronic erosion for the last 50 years, a phenomenon that has been countered by various management interventions. This study aims at comparing sixteen possible interventions, thus identifying the most effective one(s) in terms of reducing beach erosion or even promoting beach accretion. This exercise is achieved using a one-line shoreline evolution model, calibrated with in situ field data, forced by local wave conditions. The target management period is 25 years. In the calibration phase, it is found that the annual mean alongshore net sediment transport along the 24 km sandy coast is variable in direction and magnitude, but it is mostly smaller than ±50 × 10³ m³/year. This net transport results from the imbalance of northward/southward-directed bulk transports of circa tenfold-larger magnitudes. This affects the overall sediment balance at the urban beaches, as well as the effectiveness of the intervention strategies. The results show that the present management strategy is effective in holding the shoreline position, although deploying the same nourishment volume but over a shorter area could lead to better results. The best solutions, which are capable of promoting beach accretion, implicate the lengthening of the terminal groin at the northern extremity of the beach. The results from this study can support decision makers in identifying the most appropriate management action, not just locally but also at other coastal regions where similar problems persist and the same methodology could be applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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20 pages, 5091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cost–Benefit Approach to Discuss Artificial Nourishments to Mitigate Coastal Erosion

by Carlos Coelho, Márcia Lima and Margarida Ferreira

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(12), 1906; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10121906 - 05 Dec 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Worldwide, artificial nourishments are being considered as one of the main coastal erosion mitigation measures. However, this solution is not permanent, since the natural removal of sediments that occurs after the sand deposition leads to the need of re-nourishment projects; thus, its performance [...] Read more.

Worldwide, artificial nourishments are being considered as one of the main coastal erosion mitigation measures. However, this solution is not permanent, since the natural removal of sediments that occurs after the sand deposition leads to the need of re-nourishment projects; thus, its performance and longevity dependent on several design parameters (placement site and extension alongshore, frequency, and volume, etc.) In this work, a methodological approach for cost–benefit assessment is applied to analyze the performance of artificial nourishments from a physical and economical point of view, by analyzing the effectiveness of different scenarios. The study was developed considering two study areas: a hypothetical situation (generic study area) and a real coastal stretch (Barra-Vagueira, located in the Portuguese west coast). The findings show the complexity in defining the best nourishment option, being dependent on the wave climate, site specific conditions, and main goal of the intervention. The proposed cost–benefit approach allows one to obtain and compare the physical and economic performance of artificial nourishments to mitigate coastal erosion, aiding the decision-making processes related to coastal planning and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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20 pages, 8162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Analysis of a Nearshore Nourishment along the Atlantic Coast of New Jersey, USA

by Sean P. McGill, Brian D. Harris, Brian C. McFall, Douglas R. Krafft, Rachel L. Bain, Nicholas R. Olsen, Ian W. Conery and Monica A. Chasten

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(11), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10111622 - 02 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2647

Abstract

Nearshore nourishment is a common coastal flood risk management technique that can be constructed beneficially by using dredged sediment from navigation channels. A nearshore nourishment project was completed during the summer of 2021 in Harvey Cedars, NJ, USA, with 67,500 m³ of [...] Read more.

Nearshore nourishment is a common coastal flood risk management technique that can be constructed beneficially by using dredged sediment from navigation channels. A nearshore nourishment project was completed during the summer of 2021 in Harvey Cedars, NJ, USA, with 67,500 m³ of dredged sediment from Barnegat Inlet placed along approximately 450 m of beach in a depth of 3–4 m. In situ instruments were installed to monitor hydrodynamic conditions before and after dredged material placement, and nine topographic and bathymetric surveys were conducted to monitor nearshore morphological response to the nourishment. Shoreline location was extracted from satellite imagery using CoastSat software to compare historical trends to the shoreline response after construction. Seven months after construction, 40% of the nearshore nourishment was transported from the initial footprint and the centroid of the nourishment migrated towards shore and alongshore (north). The sheltering capacity of the nearshore berm appears to have captured an additional 58% of the placed volume from the longshore transport system and the beach width onshore of the placement increased by 10.9 m. Measured data, satellite imagery analysis, and rapid predictions all indicate that the nearshore nourishment at Harvey Cedars had a positive impact on the adjacent beach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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25 pages, 5169 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Subaqueous and Subaerial Beach Changes after Implementation of a Mega Nourishment in Front of a Sea Dike

by Anna Kroon, Matthieu de Schipper, Sierd de Vries and Stefan Aarninkhof

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(8), 1152; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10081152 - 20 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2308

Abstract

Sandy nourishments can provide additional sediment to the coastal system to maintain its recreational or safety function under rising sea levels. These nourishments can be implemented at sandy beach systems, but can also be used to reinforce gray coastal infrastructure (e.g., dams, dikes, [...] Read more.

Sandy nourishments can provide additional sediment to the coastal system to maintain its recreational or safety function under rising sea levels. These nourishments can be implemented at sandy beach systems, but can also be used to reinforce gray coastal infrastructure (e.g., dams, dikes, seawalls). The Hondsbossche Dunes project is a combined shoreface, beach, and dune nourishment of 35 million m

^{3}

sand. The nourishment was built to replace the flood protection function of an old sea-dike while creating additional space for nature and recreation. This paper presents the evolution of this newly created sandy beach system in the first 5 years after implementation based on bathymetric and topographic surveys, acquired every three to six months. A significant coastline curvature is created by the nourishment leading to erosion in the central 7 km bordered by zones with accretion. However, over the five-year period, net volume losses from the project area were less than 5% of the initial nourished sand volume. The man-made cross-shore beach profile rapidly mimics the characteristics of adjacent beaches. The slope of the surfzone is adjusted within two winters to a similar slope. The initially wide beaches (i.e., up to 225 m) are reduced to about 100 m-wide. Simultaneously, the dune volume has increased and the dune foot migrated seaward at the entire nourished site, regardless of whether the subaqueous profile gained or lost sediment. Our results show that the Hondsbossche Dunes nourishment, built with a natural slope and wide beach, created a positive sediment balance in the dune for a prolonged period after placement. As such, natural forces in the years after implementation provided a significant contribution to the growth in dune volume and related safety against flooding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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17 pages, 7675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Development and Behaviour of a Shoreface Nourishment in the Portuguese Western Coast

by Celso Aleixo Pinto, Rui Taborda, César Andrade, Paulo Baptista, Paulo Alves Silva, Diogo Mendes and Joaquim Pais-Barbosa

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10020146 - 22 Jan 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3011

Abstract

Current coastal protection strategy in Portugal defines beach and shoreface nourishment as a valid measure to mitigate coastal erosion in some erosional hot-spots, being considered as an adaptation measure under the present climate change scenario, including the impacts of sea level rise. However, [...] Read more.

Current coastal protection strategy in Portugal defines beach and shoreface nourishment as a valid measure to mitigate coastal erosion in some erosional hot-spots, being considered as an adaptation measure under the present climate change scenario, including the impacts of sea level rise. However, scant objective data on shoreface nourishments are available to evaluate performance of this type of intervention in mitigating beach erosion and managing coast risk. We present the first monitoring results of a ≈2.4 × 10⁶ m³ shoreface nourishment on the Aveiro coast (Costa Nova—Ílhavo), the largest until now in Portugal, focusing on its morphological development, impacts on adjacent beaches due to alongshore spreading and cross-shore redistribution, and contribution to the sediment budget of the nourished sediment cell. The analyses are based on high-resolution coastal monitoring data, provided by the Portuguese COaStal MOnitoring Program (COSMO). A Multiple Monitoring Cell (MMC) approach was used to evaluate local and feeder efficiency of the nourishment, sediment budget exchanges within both the placement and wider survey domains (≈1 km² and 12 km², respectively). Results show rapid (ca. 6 months) morphological change over the placement area, with a decrease of about 40% of the initial volume. Fast onshore sediment redistribution explains part of this change, placed sand having merged with the pre-existing bar system increased the volume of the shallower nearshore. Longshore transport is reflected by increasing the robustness of the bar downdrift of the placement area and also explains the negative sediment budget (0.75 × 10⁶ m³) of the survey domain, which corresponds to losses through its southern boundary. Sediment spreading also induced accretion of the subaerial section of Costa Nova beaches in front of the placement area, reversing their long-term erosive trend. In contrast, this trend persisted at downdrift beaches. This suggests that the time lag of the subaerial beach response to this intervention increases with the distance to the placement area, and reversal of the erosive trend will only be noticeable in the following years. This study provides new insights on the time scales of beach response to high-magnitude shoreface interventions in high-energy wave-dominated sandy coasts, which will support decision making regarding similar operations designed to manage erosional hot-spots elsewhere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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22 pages, 11002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Shaping the Shoreline of Klaipėda, Lithuania

by Vitalijus Kondrat, Ilona Šakurova, Eglė Baltranaitė and Loreta Kelpšaitė-Rimkienė

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(12), 1456; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9121456 - 20 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2724

Abstract

Port of Klaipėda is situated in a complex hydrological system, between the Curonian Lagoon and the Baltic Sea, at the Klaipėda strait in the South-Eastern part of the Baltic Sea. It has almost 300 m of jetties separating the Curonian Spit and the [...] Read more.

Port of Klaipėda is situated in a complex hydrological system, between the Curonian Lagoon and the Baltic Sea, at the Klaipėda strait in the South-Eastern part of the Baltic Sea. It has almost 300 m of jetties separating the Curonian Spit and the mainland coast, interrupting the main path of sediment transport through the South-Eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. Due to the Port of Klaipėda reconstruction in 2002 and the beach nourishment project, which was started in 2014, the shoreline position change tendency was observed. Shoreline position measurements of various periods can be used to derive quantitative estimates of coastal process directions and intensities. These data can be used to further our understanding of the scale and timing of shoreline changes in a geological and socio-economic context. This study analyzes long- and short-term shoreline position changes before and after the Port of Klaipėda reconstruction in 2002. Positions of historical shorelines from various sources were used, and the rates (EPR, NSM, and SCE) of shoreline changes have been assessed using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). An extension of ArcGIS K-means clustering was applied for shoreline classification into different coastal dynamic stretches. Coastal development has changed in the long-term (1984–2019) perspective: the eroded coast length increased from 1.5 to 4.2 km in the last decades. Coastal accumulation processes have been restored by the Port of Klaipėda executing the coastal zone nourishment project in 2014. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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25 pages, 9767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sediment Transport and Morphological Response to Nearshore Nourishment Projects on Wave-Dominated Coasts

by Cody L. Johnson, Brian C. McFall, Douglas R. Krafft and Mitchell E. Brown

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(11), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111182 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1924

Abstract

Nearshore nourishments are constructed for shoreline protection from waves, to provide sediment nourishment to the beach profile, and to beneficially use dredged sediment from navigation channel maintenance. However, it is poorly understood how placement morphology and depth influence nearshore processes operated on wave-dominated [...] Read more.

Nearshore nourishments are constructed for shoreline protection from waves, to provide sediment nourishment to the beach profile, and to beneficially use dredged sediment from navigation channel maintenance. However, it is poorly understood how placement morphology and depth influence nearshore processes operated on wave-dominated coasts. This study investigates the wave fields, sediment transport, and morphological response to three common nearshore nourishment shapes, nearshore berm (elongated bar), undulated nearshore berm, and small discrete mounds, with numerical experiments utilizing the Coastal Modeling System. The nourishments are placed in depths between 3 m and 7 m with a volume of approximately 100,000 m³ and between 400 m and 1000 m in alongshore length. Numerical experiments are carried out in three distinct coastal settings with representative wave climates and geomorphology. Simulation results indicate that shallower, more continuous berms attenuate the most wave energy, while deeper, more diffuse placements retain more sediment. Results from this study improve the understanding of nearshore nourishment shapes and can support decision makers identifying the most appropriate construction technique for future nearshore nourishment projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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17 pages, 9023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Making of a Gravel Beach (Cavo, Elba Island, Italy)

by Irene Cinelli, Giorgio Anfuso, Enrico Bartoletti, Lorenzo Rossi and Enzo Pranzini

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(10), 1148; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9101148 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1674

Abstract

This paper presents the history and evolution of the different projects carried out from 1999 to 2008 at Cavo beach in the Elba Island, Italy. The village of Cavo almost completely lost its beach in the 1970s due to the reduction of sedimentary [...] Read more.

This paper presents the history and evolution of the different projects carried out from 1999 to 2008 at Cavo beach in the Elba Island, Italy. The village of Cavo almost completely lost its beach in the 1970s due to the reduction of sedimentary input, and the backing coastal road was defended by a revetment and two detached breakwaters. Such severe erosion processes continued in the following years and impeded any possibility of beach tourist development. In 1999, a project based on the removal of existing breakwaters and beach nourishment works based on the use of gravel as borrow sediment and the construction of two short groins to maintain nourished sediment, raised environmental concern and did not find the approval of the stakeholders. They were worried about the characteristics of the sediments, i.e., waste materials from iron mining rich in red silt and clay. Such sediment fractions made the sea red during the nourishment and deposited on the Posidonia oceanica meadow in front of the beach, with a potential environmental impact. Furthermore, they cemented the gravel fraction forming a beach rock. Between 2006 and 2008, these materials were covered with better quality gravel, extending and raising the beach profile, which required the elevation and lengthening of the two existing groins. Beach evolution monitoring following the second project, based on morphological and sedimentological data acquired before, during and after the works, demonstrated the great stability of the newly created beach. The wider beach has allowed the construction of a promenade and the positioning, in summer, of small structures useful for seaside tourism, increasing the appeal of this village. Data presented in this paper shows an interesting study case, since few examples exist in international literature regarding gravel nourishment projects monitoring and evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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19 pages, 3497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Beach Response to a Shoreface Nourishment (Aveiro, Portugal)

by Diogo Mendes, Joaquim Pais-Barbosa, Paulo Baptista, Paulo A. Silva, Cristina Bernardes and Celso Pinto

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(10), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9101112 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3474

Abstract

In Aveiro (NW coast of Portugal), a coastal monitoring programme was carried out in sequence of a shoreface nourishment intervention (over than 2 M m

^{3}

) performed in 2020. In this programme, almost one year of biweekly subaerial topographies and quarterly bathymetric [...] Read more.

In Aveiro (NW coast of Portugal), a coastal monitoring programme was carried out in sequence of a shoreface nourishment intervention (over than 2 M m

^{3}

) performed in 2020. In this programme, almost one year of biweekly subaerial topographies and quarterly bathymetric surveys have been collected along a 10 km coastal stretch between June 2020 and June 2021. In this study, topographic and bathymetric surveys were analysed to assess the expectation that if the shoreface nourishment is located in sufficiently shallow water depths, its landward movement will feed adjacent beaches and, consequently, increase the subaerial beach volume. Results show that the subaerial beach volume is well correlated with the 1.05 m (above MSL) isoline displacement through time. While the seaward limit of the shoreface nourishment moved landwards about 200 m, the shoreline proxy (isoline of 1.05 m) displayed a maximum seaward displacement of 60 m. The displacement of the shoreline proxy was highly variable in space, along the 10 km coastal stretch, and also in time, during storm events. During such events, both landward and seawards displacement of the shoreline proxy took place, depending on the spatial position. Moreover, while beaches close to the initial shoreface nourishment intervention displayed faster accretion patterns than those located farther away, the well-defined onshore movement of the shoreface nourishment did not result in a considerable beach volume increase. The achieved results were also compared against case studies of shoreface nourishments with similar volumes performed worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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19 pages, 3450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Physical Modeling of an Artificial Beach Nourishment: Laboratory Procedures and Nourishment Performance

by André Guimarães, Carlos Coelho, Fernando Veloso-Gomes and Paulo A. Silva

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(6), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060613 - 03 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3331

Abstract

Beach nourishment represents a type of coastal defense intervention, keeping the beach as a natural coastal defense system. Altering the cross-shore profile geometry, due to the introduction of new sediments, induces a non-equilibrium situation regarding the local wave dynamics. This work aims to [...] Read more.

Beach nourishment represents a type of coastal defense intervention, keeping the beach as a natural coastal defense system. Altering the cross-shore profile geometry, due to the introduction of new sediments, induces a non-equilibrium situation regarding the local wave dynamics. This work aims to increase our knowledge concerning 3D movable bed physical modeling and beach nourishment impacts on the hydrodynamics, sediment transport, and morphodynamics. A set of experiments with an artificial beach nourishment movable bed model was prepared. Hydrodynamic, sediment transport, and morphological variations and impacts due to the presence of the nourishment were monitored with specific equipment. Special attention was given to the number and positioning of the monitoring equipment and the inherent constraints of 3D movable beds laboratory tests. The nourishment induced changes in the beach dynamics, leading to an increase in the flow velocities range and suspended sediment concentration, and effectively increasing the emerged beach width. Predicting and anticipating the morphological evolution of the modeled beach has a major impact on data accuracy, since it might influence the monitoring equipment’s correct position. Laboratory results and constraints were characterized to help better define future laboratory procedures and strategies for increasing movable bed models’ accuracy and performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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14 pages, 4769 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Artificial Nourishments Effects on Longshore Sediments Transport

by Ana Margarida Ferreira and Carlos Coelho

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(3), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9030240 - 24 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2522

Abstract

Serious erosion problems related to significant negative sediments budgets in the coastal systems are referred worldwide. Artificial nourishments are a coastal erosion mitigation strategy that allow for a decrease in those negative budgets by adding sediment to the coastal system. Thus, it is [...] Read more.

Serious erosion problems related to significant negative sediments budgets in the coastal systems are referred worldwide. Artificial nourishments are a coastal erosion mitigation strategy that allow for a decrease in those negative budgets by adding sediment to the coastal system. Thus, it is essential to understand and adequately model the shoreline response after a nourishment operation, in order to support the definition of the best intervention scenarios. The main goal of this work was to study the artificial nourishment effects on the longshore sediment transport and consequently on the morphological evolution at the intervention site and nearby areas, in a time horizon of 5 years. The longshore transport of the nourished sediments was evaluated, aiming to contribute to the evaluation of the sediment’s permanence at the deposition site and the frequency required for new nourishments. The shoreline evolution numerical long-term configuration (LTC) model was applied in order to evaluate the spatial and temporal distribution of the nourished sediments along the coast, considering different types of beaches and incident wave climates. The adopted approach is generic and supported by simple numerical models, which can be useful for preliminary site-specific evaluations. The results show that the nourishment impact is mainly observed nearby the intervention site. It is highlighted that higher longshore sediment transport rates are associated with more energetic wave climates, but not necessarily with incident waves more oblique to the shoreline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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Review

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13 pages, 2612 KiB

Open AccessReview

Does Sand Beach Nourishment Enhance the Dispersion of Non-Indigenous Species?—The Case of the Common Moon Crab, Matuta victor (Fabricius, 1781), in the Southeastern Mediterranean

by Dov Zviely, Dror Zurel, Dor Edelist, Menashe Bitan and Ehud Spanier

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(8), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080911 - 23 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2474

Abstract

Sand beach nourishment (BN) is one of the commonest “soft solutions” for shore protection and restoration. Yet it may have ecological consequences. Can this practice enhance the introduction and dispersal of non-indigenous species (NIS)? There has been little research on the impacts of [...] Read more.

Sand beach nourishment (BN) is one of the commonest “soft solutions” for shore protection and restoration. Yet it may have ecological consequences. Can this practice enhance the introduction and dispersal of non-indigenous species (NIS)? There has been little research on the impacts of nourishment on NIS, especially in the southeastern Mediterranean, a region considered most affected by invading biota. However, so far only one study referred to the possible interaction between BN and the success of invading species. It reports increasing numbers and densities of the aggressive, omnivorous Indo-Pacific moon crab, Matuta victor (Fabricius, 1781) in Haifa Bay (northern Israel) between 2011 and 2017. This research suggests a possible role of anthropogenic disturbance in the outbreak of M. victor and blames the Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection for authorizing a (rather small scale) BN in Haifa Bay in 2011 as an alleged cause for this outbreak. Circumstantial indirect evidence is not sufficient to establish the role of nourishment in promoting the establishment and dispersal of NIS. There are plenty of examples of successful settlement and rapid and large-scale distribution of NIS (including another member of the genus Matuta), especially in the eastern Mediterranean, without any BN in the region. Furthermore, the location where the M. victor specimens were sampled was exposed to more prevailing and frequent anthropogenic marine stressors than BN, such as eutrophication, pollution, fishing activities and particularly port construction. To firmly establish an assumed role of nourishment in the invasion of NIS, assessments must be based on solid and orderly planned scientific research to be designed well before the beginning of any BN. It is suggested that direct communication between environmental regulators and scientists is crucial for improving both scientific research and environmental management policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sediment Dynamics in Artificial Nourishments)

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