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Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water
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Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Global Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 15022

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Marco Verani

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Virology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via S. Zeno 35/39, 56127 Pisa, Italy
Interests: environmental hygiene; occupational hygiene; food hygiene; environmental microbiology and virology; risk assessment; public health; molecular epidemiology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Water, which is one of the main determinants of health and represents the most fragile element on the planet, can be contaminated in several ways. The microbiological pollution of drinking, reused, or recreational water is a public health issue: the consumption of, or contact with, contaminated waters is associated with outbreaks caused by pathogens, such as bacteria, protozoa parasites, and viruses. The current microbial water quality standards in most regulations are based mainly on fecal bacteria monitoring (total and fecal coliform, E. coli, intestinal enterococci, C. perfringens) and the monitoring of some human bacterial pathogens (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and Salmonella spp.). Nevertheless, in the context of public health protection, these parameters are still an issue of great controversy, because it is well known that they are not consistently correlated with other pathogens, especially viruses. Alternative microbial parameters have been proposed and tested in different water types, such as somatic coliphages and directly pathogenic agents, which have been used as indices to assess risk. In this sense, direct research on pathogens in specific polluted water, such as wastewater, can also be used for surveillance (wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE)) and to better understand the real microbial risk associated with water pollution using innovative approaches, such as quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). This Special Issue seeks to gather papers on various aspects of water microbial pollution, including research on the microbiological monitoring of emerging pathogens, the WBE of viruses, and studies on the relationship between water contamination and health effects. We especially encourage the submission of interdisciplinary work and manuscripts related to new tools for microbial research, such as the use of sensors. We also encourage the submission of studies based on QMRA relating to water pollution, which aims to estimate the risk for humans. We welcome original research papers as well as reviews.

Dr. Marco Verani
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • water microbial pollution
  • microbial monitoring
  • risk assessment
  • microbial pollution indicators
  • index pathogens
  • microbial detection methods
  • wastewater based epidemiology

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 987 KiB  
Article
Persistence of E. coli in Streambed Sediment Contaminated with Faeces from Dairy Cows, Geese, and Deer: Legacy Risks to Environment and Health
by Emmanuel O. Afolabi, Richard S. Quilliam and David M. Oliver
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(7), 5375; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20075375 - 03 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1319
Abstract
Legacy stores of faecal pollution in streambed sediments can result in delayed impacts on environmental quality and human health if resuspended into the overlying water column. Different catchment sources of faecal pollution can contribute to a legacy store of microbial pollutants, with size [...] Read more.
Legacy stores of faecal pollution in streambed sediments can result in delayed impacts on environmental quality and human health if resuspended into the overlying water column. Different catchment sources of faecal pollution can contribute to a legacy store of microbial pollutants, with size of stores influenced by microbial die-off and faecal accrual rates in the streambed. The aim of this study was to use a mesocosm experiment to characterise the persistence of E. coli derived from faeces of dairy cows, deer, and geese once introduced to streambed sediment under different temperature regimes. The settling rate of solid constituents of faecal material into streambed sediment once delivered into an aquatic environment was also quantified. The persistence patterns of E. coli in streambed sediment were found to vary as a function of faecal source and temperature; die-off of E. coli in sediment contaminated with goose faeces was more rapid than in sediments contaminated with dairy cow or deer faeces. Goose faeces also recorded a more rapid settling rate of faecal particles through the water column relative to dairy cow and deer faeces, suggesting a more efficient delivery of E. coli to streambed sediments associated with this faecal source. Our findings provide new evidence to improve understanding of the potential longer-term risks to both the environment and public health posed by sediments when contaminated with livestock, wildlife, and wildfowl faeces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water)
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11 pages, 2006 KiB  
Article
Calibration of Methods for SARS-CoV-2 Environmental Surveillance: A Case Study from Northwest Tuscany
by Marco Verani, Ileana Federigi, Sara Muzio, Giulia Lauretani, Piergiuseppe Calà, Fabrizio Mancuso, Roberto Salvadori, Claudia Valentini, Giuseppina La Rosa, Elisabetta Suffredini and Annalaura Carducci
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(24), 16588; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416588 - 09 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1220
Abstract
The current pandemic has provided an opportunity to test wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) as a complementary method to SARS-CoV-2 monitoring in the community. However, WBE infection estimates can be affected by uncertainty factors, such as heterogeneity in analytical procedure, wastewater volume, and population size. [...] Read more.
The current pandemic has provided an opportunity to test wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) as a complementary method to SARS-CoV-2 monitoring in the community. However, WBE infection estimates can be affected by uncertainty factors, such as heterogeneity in analytical procedure, wastewater volume, and population size. In this paper, raw sewage SARS-CoV-2 samples were collected from four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Tuscany (Northwest Italy) between February and December 2021. During the surveillance period, viral concentration was based on polyethylene glycol (PEG), but its precipitation method was modified from biphasic separation to centrifugation. Therefore, in parallel, the recovery efficiency of each method was evaluated at lab-scale, using two spiking viruses (human coronavirus 229E and mengovirus vMC0). SARS-CoV-2 genome was found in 80 (46.5%) of the 172 examined samples. Lab-scale experiments revealed that PEG precipitation using centrifugation had the best recovery efficiency (up to 30%). Viral SARS-CoV-2 load obtained from sewage data, adjusted by analytical method and normalized by population of each WWTP, showed a good association with the clinical data in the study area. This study highlights that environmental surveillance data need to be carefully analyzed before their use in the WBE, also considering the sensibility of the analytical methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water)
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13 pages, 3480 KiB  
Article
Salivary Antibodies against Multiple Environmental Pathogens Found in Individuals Recreating at an Iowa Beach
by Swinburne A. J. Augustine, Tarsha N. Eason, Tim Wade, Shannon M. Griffin, Elizabeth Sams, Kaneatra Simmons, Malini Ramudit, Kevin Oshima and Alfred Dufour
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(11), 5797; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115797 - 28 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2079
Abstract
Detecting environmental exposures and mitigating their impacts are growing global public health challenges. Antibody tests show great promise and have emerged as fundamental tools for large-scale exposure studies. Here, we apply, demonstrate and validate the utility of a salivary antibody multiplex immunoassay in [...] Read more.
Detecting environmental exposures and mitigating their impacts are growing global public health challenges. Antibody tests show great promise and have emerged as fundamental tools for large-scale exposure studies. Here, we apply, demonstrate and validate the utility of a salivary antibody multiplex immunoassay in measuring antibody prevalence and immunoconversions to six pathogens commonly found in the environment. The study aimed to assess waterborne infections in consenting beachgoers recreating at an Iowa riverine beach by measuring immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies against select pathogens in serially collected saliva samples. Results showed that nearly 80% of beachgoers had prior exposures to at least one of the targeted pathogens at the beginning of the study. Most of these exposures were to norovirus GI.1 (59.41%), norovirus GII.4 (58.79%) and Toxoplasma gondii (22.80%) and over half (56.28%) of beachgoers had evidence of previous exposure to multiple pathogens. Of individuals who returned samples for each collection period, 6.11% immunoconverted to one or more pathogens, largely to noroviruses (GI.1: 3.82% and GII.4: 2.29%) and T. gondii (1.53%). Outcomes of this effort illustrate that the multiplex immunoassay presented here serves as an effective tool for evaluating health risks by providing valuable information on the occurrence of known and emerging pathogens in population surveillance studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water)
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14 pages, 1981 KiB  
Article
Microbiological Assessment of Tap Water Following the 2016 Louisiana Flooding
by Nati K. Phan and Samendra P. Sherchan
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1273; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041273 - 17 Feb 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2881
Abstract
Floods are a prominent risk factor in the world of public health, as there is a risk of dispersal of harmful biological and chemical contaminants in floodwater. As climate change increases, the occurrence of natural disasters and risk of adverse health outcomes due [...] Read more.
Floods are a prominent risk factor in the world of public health, as there is a risk of dispersal of harmful biological and chemical contaminants in floodwater. As climate change increases, the occurrence of natural disasters and risk of adverse health outcomes due to flash flooding also increases. Fecal indicator bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Enterococci, are often encountered in contaminated floodwater and can cause gastrointestinal illnesses as well as a variety of infections. In August 2016, East Baton Rouge and surrounding parishes in Louisiana suffered heavy floods due to intense rainfall. No study of water quality during flooding has been conducted previously in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Twenty-three pre-flush and post-flush water samples were collected immediately from accessible homes that had been affected by the floods in order to quantify concentrations of fecal indicator bacteria. These samples were analyzed for the presence of E. coli and Enterococci through both quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and the IDEXX enzyme substrate method. The qPCR results indicated that 30% of the samples contained Enterococci and 61% of the samples contained E. coli, with the highest concentrations found in the pre-flush outdoor hose and the pre-flush kitchen tap. The IDEXX method yielded total coliforms in 65% of the samples, E. coli in 4%, and Enterococci in 35%, with the highest concentrations in the pre-flush outdoor faucet and the pre-flush post-filtration kitchen tap. Physical parameters including temperature, barometer pressure, dissolved oxygen, oxidation reduction potential, pH, conductivity, and salinity of these samples were also recorded. Of these parameters, conductivity and salinity were significant, suggesting they may positively influence E. coli and Enterococci growth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water)
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Review

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16 pages, 2189 KiB  
Review
Occurrence of Hepatitis A Virus in Water Matrices: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Guy Roussel Takuissu, Sebastien Kenmoe, Jean Thierry Ebogo-Belobo, Cyprien Kengne-Ndé, Donatien Serge Mbaga, Arnol Bowo-Ngandji, Juliette Laure Ndzie Ondigui, Raoul Kenfack-Momo, Serges Tchatchouang, Josiane Kenfack-Zanguim, Robertine Lontuo Fogang, Elisabeth Zeuko’o Menkem, Ginette Irma Kame-Ngasse, Jeannette Nina Magoudjou-Pekam, Carolina Veneri, Pamela Mancini, Giusy Bonanno Ferraro, Marcello Iaconelli, Lidia Orlandi, Claudia Del Giudice, Elisabetta Suffredini and Giuseppina La Rosaadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(2), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021054 - 06 Jan 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2816
Abstract
Hepatitis A is a common form of viral hepatitis. It is usually transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated food and water. This systematic review was carried out to summarise the overall prevalence of Hepatitis A virus (HAV) in different water matrices: untreated and [...] Read more.
Hepatitis A is a common form of viral hepatitis. It is usually transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated food and water. This systematic review was carried out to summarise the overall prevalence of Hepatitis A virus (HAV) in different water matrices: untreated and treated wastewater, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and others (e.g., irrigation water and floodwater). The literature search was performed in four databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Global Index Medicus, and Excerpta Medica Database. Heterogeneity (I2) was assessed using the χ2 test on the Cochran Q statistic and H parameters. A total of 200 prevalence data from 144 articles were included in this meta-analysis. The overall prevalence of HAV in water matrices was 16.7% (95% CI: 13.4–20.3). The prevalence for individual matrix was as follows: 31.4% (95% CI: 23.0–40.4) untreated wastewater, 18.0% (95% CI: 9.5–28.2) treated wastewater, 15.0% (95% CI: 10.1–20.5) surface water, 2.3% (95% CI: 0.1–6.0) in groundwater, 0.3% (95% CI: 0.0–1.7) in drinking water, and 8.5% (95% CI: 3.1–15.6) in other matrices. The prevalence was higher in low-income economies (29.0%). Africa and Eastern Mediterranean were the regions with higher HAV prevalence values. This study showed a high heterogeneity (I2 > 75%) with a significant publication bias (p value Egger test < 0.001). The results of this review suggest that water matrices could be an important route of HAV transmission even in industrialized countries, despite the lower prevalence compared to less industrialized countries, and the availability of advanced water management systems. More effective water/wastewater treatment strategies are needed in developing countries to limit the environmental circulation of HAV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water)
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16 pages, 824 KiB  
Review
Pollution, Inflammation, and Vaccines: A Complex Crosstalk
by Laura Franza and Rossella Cianci
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(12), 6330; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126330 - 11 Jun 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3473
Abstract
The importance of pollution in determining human health is becoming increasingly clear, also given the dramatic consequences it has had on recent geopolitical events. Yet, the consequences of contamination are not always straightforward. In this paper, we will discuss the effects of different [...] Read more.
The importance of pollution in determining human health is becoming increasingly clear, also given the dramatic consequences it has had on recent geopolitical events. Yet, the consequences of contamination are not always straightforward. In this paper, we will discuss the effects of different pollutants on different aspects of human health, in particular on the immune system and inflammation. Different environmental pollutants can have different effects on the immune system, which can then promote complex pathologies, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer. The interaction with the microbiota also further helps to determine the consequences of contamination on wellbeing. The pollution can affect vaccination efficacy, given the widespread effects of vaccination on immunity. At the same time, some vaccinations also can exert protective effects against some forms of pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Implications Relating to Microbiological Pollution of Water)
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