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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A4: Bio-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 28 May 2024 | Viewed by 10613

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Dr. Giuseppe Bagnato

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Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YR, UK
Interests: simulation; mathematical modeling; hydrogen production; membrane technology; plasma reactor; heterogeneous catalyst; gas separation; carbon capture and utilization; process intensification
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Dear Colleagues,

Economic and technological development have caused undesirable phenomena such as the increase in the emission of greenhouse gases. The increase of these phenomena over time is directly proportional to the increasing use of fossil energy resources, and therefore the progressive introduction of renewable energy resources is strategic and appropriate, with the consequent reduction of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere.

This Special Issue aims to present and disseminate the most recent advances related to biomass conversion, biopolymer production, biochemicals, biofuel production, process intensification, modelling and techno-economical assessment.

Dr. Giuseppe Bagnato
Guest Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

19 pages, 1928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Techno-Economic Analysis Comparing a Hammermill and a Rotary Shear System to Process Woody Biomass for Biofuel Production

by Carlos O. Trejo-Pech, T. Edward Yu, David N. Lanning, James H. Dooley, James A. Larson and Burton C. English

Energies 2024, 17(4), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17040886 - 14 Feb 2024

Viewed by 462

Abstract

Woody biomass feedstock processing, including sorting, drying, and size reduction of biomass to provide standardized reactor-ready biomass to the biorefinery, is crucial to biofuel conversion. This study compares two comminution technology systems applied to woody biomass processing at a depot before being utilized for biofuel production at a biorefinery. The conventional comminution technology, known as the hammermill system, is compared with a rotary shear system developed by Forest Concepts™. Potential economic savings of using the new technology are evaluated by applying a deterministic and a stochastic partial capital budgeting model based on results from an experiment that processed chipped hybrid poplar chips and forest residues with both systems. The stochastic partial capital model estimates that savings will vary between approximately USD 28 and USD 42 per ton of reactor-ready processed biomass, with mean and median values around USD 34 per ton. It is 90% likely that savings will be between USD 30 and USD 39 per ton of reactor-ready processed biomass. The estimated savings are mainly due to differences in input (feedstock) to output (reactor-ready biomass) yields between technologies, affecting feedstock and drying costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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12 pages, 4351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnesium Hydride: Investigating Its Capability to Maintain Stable Vapor Film

by Raminta Skvorčinskienė, Justas Eimontas, Matas Bašinskas, Lina Vorotinskienė, Marius Urbonavičius, Ieva Kiminaitė, Monika Maziukienė, Nerijus Striūgas, Kęstutis Zakarauskas and Vidas Makarevičius

Energies 2024, 17(3), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17030661 - 30 Jan 2024

Viewed by 503

Abstract

In order to implement timely sustainability solutions, road transportation is gradually transitioning to electric power. However, the maritime sector faces challenges in finding ways to shift towards more sustainable fuel. From the perspective of long-distance shipping, electric transport is economically impractical. Therefore, alternative solutions or proposals contributing to the global reduction of pollutant gas emissions in maritime transport are vitally important. This investigation aims to find solutions that enhance the ecological efficiency of intercontinental cargo ships. In this study, an assessment of a magnesium hydride coating was conducted as it is a prospective coating capable of reducing hydrodynamic resistance to save fuel. Due to MgH₂’s ability to release hydrogen at higher temperatures or during a reaction with water, it is expected that this could contribute to an enhancement of the Leidenfrost effect, maintaining a vapor layer on the surface. Samples prepared in situ via reactive magnetron sputtering were submitted to thermal analysis for dehydrogenation range evaluation and the experimental rig for critical (Leidenfrost) temperature identification. In conclusion, thermogravimetric (TG) analysis indicated that the volatile content, primarily hydrogen, in the sample reached approximately 13% by mass. The TG curve exhibited variations in MgH₂ mass, with the most significant mass loss occurring at 300 °C. After conducting critical temperature experiments, the potential of MgO coating was observed to be greater than anticipated when compared to the main material, MgH₂. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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23 pages, 3324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodiesel from Bark and Black Liquor—A Techno-Economic, Social, and Environmental Assessment

by Julia Hansson, Sofia Klugman, Tomas Lönnqvist, Nilay Elginoz, Julia Granacher, Pavinee Hasselberg, Fredrik Hedman, Nora Efraimsson, Sofie Johnsson, Sofia Poulikidou, Sahar Safarian and Kåre Tjus

Energies 2024, 17(1), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010099 - 23 Dec 2023

Viewed by 728

Abstract

A techno-economic assessment and environmental and social sustainability assessments of novel Fischer–Tropsch (FT) biodiesel production from the wet and dry gasification of biomass-based residue streams (bark and black liquor from pulp production) for transport applications are presented. A typical French kraft pulp mill serves as the reference case and large-scale biofuel-production-process integration is explored. Relatively low greenhouse gas emission levels can be obtained for the FT biodiesel (total span: 16–83 g CO₂eq/MJ in the assessed EU countries). Actual process configuration and low-carbon electricity are critical for overall performance. The site-specific social assessment indicates an overall positive social effect for local community, value chain actors, and society. Important social aspects include (i) job creation potential, (ii) economic development through job creation and new business opportunities, and (iii) health and safety for workers. For social risks, the country of implementation is important. Heat and electricity use are the key contributors to social impacts. The estimated production cost for biobased crude oil is about 13 €/GJ, and it is 14 €/GJ (0.47 €/L or 50 €/MWh) for the FT biodiesel. However, there are uncertainties, i.e., due to the low technology readiness level of the gasification technologies, especially wet gasification. However, the studied concept may provide substantial GHG reduction compared to fossil diesel at a relatively low cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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17 pages, 4717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of 1-Hexanol/Hexyl hexanoate Mixtures from Grape Pomace: Insights on Diesel Engine Performances at High Bio-Blendstock Loadings

by Stefano Frigo, Anna Maria Raspolli Galletti, Sara Fulignati, Domenico Licursi, Lorenzo Bertin, Gonzalo Agustin Martinez and Gianluca Pasini

Energies 2023, 16(19), 6789; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16196789 - 24 Sep 2023

Viewed by 954

Abstract

The production of oxygenated bio-additives for traditional fuels represents a key challenge due to their depletion in the near-future and their positive contribution to the reduction in environmental pollution. The present study considers the synthesis of 1-hexanol/hexyl hexanoate mixtures, two oxygenated Diesel bio-additives produced through the hydrogenation of hexanoic acid, obtainable from the fermentation of a wide variety of waste biomasses. In our case, crude hexanoic acid was produced through the fermentation of grape pomace, an abundant Italian agrifood waste. Commercial 5 wt% Re/γ-Al₂O₃ was adopted for the catalytic hydrogenation of crude hexanoic acid, and the support acidity allowed the tuning of the reaction selectivity toward the formation of hexyl hexanoate, instead of 1-hexanol, reaching yields of 40 and 25 mol%, respectively. The effects of each bio-additive on Diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions (soot, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons) were evaluated, highlighting noteworthy positive effects especially on the reduction in carbon monoxide and soot emissions, if compared with those of Diesel fuel alone. Similar promising performances were achieved by employing Diesel blend mixtures of 1-hexanol/hexyl hexanoate, mimicking typical compositions of the rhenium-catalyzed post-hydrogenation mixtures. Even in such cases, 1-hexanol/hexyl hexanoate mixtures can be blended with commercial Diesel fuel, up to high loadings currently not yet investigated (20 vol%), without altering the engine performances and, again, significantly lowering soot and carbon monoxide emissions by more than 40%. This work highlights the possibility of obtaining such oxygenated bio-additives starting from waste through to a fully sustainable process and proves their beneficial effects on the reduction in exhaust emissions with no changes in engine performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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19 pages, 10584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Production of Bio-Oil from In Situ Catalytic Upgrading of Fast Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass

by Ali Abdulkhani, Zahra Echresh Zadeh, Solomon Gajere Bawa, Fubao Sun, Meysam Madadi, Xueming Zhang and Basudeb Saha

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2715; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062715 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1895

Abstract

Catalytic upgrading of fast pyrolysis bio-oil from two different types of lignocellulosic biomass was conducted using an H-ZSM-5 catalyst at different temperatures. A fixed-bed pyrolysis reactor has been used to perform in situ catalytic pyrolysis experiments at temperatures of 673, 773, and 873 K, where the catalyst (H-ZSM-5) has been mixed with wood chips or lignin, and the pyrolysis and upgrading processes have been performed simultaneously. The fractionation method has been employed to determine the chemical composition of bio-oil samples after catalytic pyrolysis experiments by gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy (GCMS). Other characterization techniques, e.g., water content, viscosity, elemental analysis, pH, and bomb calorimetry have been used, and the obtained results have been compared with the non-catalytic pyrolysis method. The highest bio-oil yield has been reported for bio-oil obtained from softwood at 873 K for both non-catalytic and catalytic bio-oil samples. The results indicate that the main effect of H-ZSM-5 has been observed on the amount of water and oxygen for all bio-oil samples at three different temperatures, where a significant reduction has been achieved compared to non-catalytic bio-oil samples. In addition, a significant viscosity reduction has been reported compared to non-catalytic bio-oil samples, and less viscous bio-oil samples have been produced by catalytic pyrolysis. Furthermore, the obtained results show that the heating values have been increased for upgraded bio-oil samples compared to non-catalytic bio-oil samples. The GCMS analysis of the catalytic bio-oil samples (H-ZSM-5) indicates that toluene and methanol have shown very similar behavior in extracting bio-oil samples in contrast to non-catalytic experiments. However, methanol performed better for extracting chemicals at a higher temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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12 pages, 2915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enzymatic Co-Fermentation of Onion Waste for Bioethanol Production Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris

by Iqra Shahid, Ghulam Hussain, Mehwish Anis, Muhammad Umar Farooq, Muhammad Usman, Yasser Fouad and Jaroslaw Krzywanski

Energies 2023, 16(5), 2181; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052181 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1751

Abstract

This paper evaluates the feasibility of bioethanol production from onion waste by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris and their novel co-culture through fermentation. The process parameters were optimized for each strain and their combination to observe the synergistic effect of co-fermentation. A dinitro salicylic acid (DNS) test was conducted to study the reducing sugar content of samples at different time intervals. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic analysis was used to compare results for functional groups of samples before and after fermentation, and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) analysis was performed to measure the bioethanol concentration obtained at different combinations of pH (5, 5.5, 6), temperature (20 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C), and time (24–110 h). The maximum bioethanol concentration was achieved through a monoculture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, i.e., 30.56 g/L. The ethanol productivity was determined based on the ethanol concentration and fermentation time ratio. The energy content was determined using the obtained ethanol value and the specific energy content of ethanol, i.e., 30 kJ/g. The productivity and energy of bioethanol obtained at this maximum concentration were 0.355 g/L h and 916.8 kJ/L, respectively, after 86 h of fermentation at 30 °C and pH 5. Pichia pastoris produced a maximum of 21.06 g/L bioethanol concentration with bioethanol productivity and energy of 0.264 g/L h and 631.8 kJ/L, respectively, after 72 h of fermentation at 30 °C and pH 5. The coculture fermentation resulted in 22.72 g/L of bioethanol concentration with bioethanol productivity and energy of 0.264 g/L h and 681.6 kJ/L, respectively, after 86 h of fermentation at 30 °C and pH 5. The results of reducing sugars also supported the same conclusion that monoculture fermentation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae was the most effective for bioethanol production compared to Pichia pastoris and co-culture fermentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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25 pages, 1677 KiB

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Cyanobacteria as a Biocatalyst for Sustainable Production of Biofuels and Chemicals

by Varsha K. Singh, Sapana Jha, Palak Rana, Renu Soni, Rowland Lalnunpuii, Prashant K. Singh, Rajeshwar P. Sinha and Garvita Singh

Energies 2024, 17(2), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020408 - 14 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1343

Abstract

The combustion of fossil fuels constitutes a significant catalyst for climate change, resulting in the annual release of about two billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO₂). The increase in CO₂ emission is directly linked to a heightened occurrence of natural calamities and health-related issues. The substitution of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources is a fundamental approach to reduce the negative impacts caused by consumption of these nonrenewable energy resources. The utilisation of biological methodologies to produce environmentally friendly energy from renewable sources holds significant potential for the sustainable production of fuel. However, the cultivation of first- and second-generation biofuel crops presents a challenge, since they compete for limited cropland, hence constraining their overall viability. In contrast, photosynthetic microorganisms such as algae and cyanobacteria exhibit significant potential as third-generation biofuel catalysts, devoid of the limitations associated with contemporary biofuels. Cyanobacteria, a type of photosynthetic prokaryotes, exhibit significant potential for the direct conversion of carbon dioxide (CO₂) into biofuels, chemicals, and various other valuable compounds. There has been a growing interest in the concept of utilising biological processes to convert carbon dioxide into fuels and chemicals. The introduction of a limited number of heterologous genes has the potential to confer upon cyanobacteria the capability to convert particular central metabolites into a diverse range of end products. The progress in the field of synthetic biology and genetic manipulation has enabled the manipulation of cyanobacteria to synthesise compounds that are not generally produced by these organisms in their natural environment. This study focuses on recent papers that employ various methodologies to engineer cyanobacteria for the purpose of producing high-value compounds, such as biofuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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19 pages, 4609 KiB

Open AccessReview

Metal–Organic Framework (MOF)-Derived Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) Applications in Fuel Cell Systems: A Review of Current Advancements and Perspectives

by Karmegam Dhanabalan, Muthukumar Perumalsamy, Ganesan Sriram, Nagaraj Murugan, Shalu, Thangarasu Sadhasivam and Tae Hwan Oh

Energies 2023, 16(13), 4950; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16134950 - 26 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2213

Abstract

High-porosity, crystalline, and surface-area-rich metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) may be employed in electrochemical energy applications for active catalysis. MOFs have recently been modified using secondary building blocks, open metal sites with large pore diameters, and functional ligands for electronic conductivity. They have the potential for excellent performance in fuel cell applications, and they have several possibilities to enhance the fundamental characteristics of mass and electron transportation. MOFs may be combined with other materials, such as solitary metal nanoparticles and carbon and nitrogen composites, to increase their catalytic efficacy, especially in oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). As a result, this study focuses on MOF derivatives for ORR applications, including porous carbon MOF, single metal MOF-derived composites, metal oxides, and metal phosphides. An efficient MOF electrocatalyst platform for ORR applications is presented, along with its prospects. These initiatives promote promising MOF electrocatalysts for enhancing fuel cell efficiency and pique curiosity for possible growth in subsequent research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conversion of Biomass to Fuel and Commodity Chemicals)

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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: Cyanobacteria as a biocatalyst for sustainable production of biofuels and chemicals
Authors: Varsha K. Singh; Sapana Jha; Palak Rana; Renu Soni; Rowland Lalnunpuii; Prashant Kumar Singh; Rajeshwar P. Sinha; Garvita Singh
Affiliation: Banaras Hindu University
Abstract: The combustion of fossil fuels constitutes a significant catalyst for climate change, resulting in the annual release of about two billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2). The increase in CO2 emmision is directly linked to a heightened occurrence of natural calamities and health-related issues. The substitution of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources is a fundamental approach to reduce the negative impacts caused by consumption of these nonrenewable energy resources. The utilisation of biological methodologies to produce environmentally friendly energy from renewable sources holds significant potential for the sustainable production of fuel. However, the cultivation of first- and second-generation biofuel crops presents a challenge since they compete for limited cropland, hence constraining their overall viability. In contrast, photosynthetic microorganisms such as algae and cyanobacteria exhibit significant potential as third-generation biofuel catalysts, devoid of the limitations associated with contemporary biofuels. Cyanobacteria, a type of photosynthetic prokaryotes, exhibit significant potential for direct conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) into biofuels, chemicals, and various other valuable compounds. There has been a growing interest in the concept of utilising biological processes to convert carbon dioxide into fuels and chemicals. The introduction of a limited number of heterologous genes has the potential to confer upon cyanobacteria the capability to convert particular central metabolites into a diverse range of end products. The progress in the field of synthetic biology and genetic manipulation has enabled the manipulation of cyanobacteria to synthesise compounds that are not generally produced by these organisms in their natural environment. This study focuses on recent papers that employ various methodologies to engineer cyanobacteria for the purpose of producing high-value compounds, such as biofuels.

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