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The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms

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A special issue of Biology (ISSN 2079-7737).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2024 | Viewed by 15341

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Dong Zhang

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Guest Editor

East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Shanghai 200090, China
Interests: mariculture; behavioral ecology

Dr. Ming Duan

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Guest Editor

Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
Interests: fish behavior; fishery intelligent technology and equipment; fishery ecological engineering; aquaculture

Dr. Miao Wang

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Guest Editor

Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou 510380, China
Interests: water quality management in aquaculture; aquatic microorganism; freshwater fish physiology

Dr. Xiangsheng Hong

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Guest Editor

Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
Interests: aquatic ecotoxicity; neurotoxicity of pharmaceuticals; fish behavior; hazard & risk assessment

Dr. Mengmeng Yi

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Guest Editor

Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou 510380, China
Interests: wastewater treatment; environmental microbiology; fish behavior

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Water quality can influence the structure and function of freshwater or marine ecosystems, especially the biodiversity and health of aquatic organisms. In turn, aquatic organisms are critical for improving water quality through elemental cycling and nutrient transformations. Further studies are needed to explore the role of organisms in the aquatic environment, which would enable us to better protect and restore aquatic ecosystems and improve the ecosystems’ health.

Aquatic organisms can reduce the negative impact of a wide range of pollutants on ecosystems. Aquatic plants (macro- and micro-algae), cyanobacteria, fungi, bacteria, and aquatic animals (shellfish and fish) have an important role in treating various polluted waters. Thus, aquatic organisms are one of the most environmentally safe, highly sustainable, and effective biomaterials. Biological methods for wastewater treatment have great potential on water quality control.

This Special Issue aims to understand the interplay between aquatic organisms and water quality and explore novel biological techniques for water quality treatment.

We are pleased to invite you to submit your works to this Special Issue.

In this Special Issue, original research article and review are welcome. Research topics may include (but are not limited to) the following:

Monitoring of aquatic organisms and water quality;
Biological methods for the treatment of water quality;
Analyses on the interaction between aquatic organisms and aquatic ecosystem health;
Effects of water quality on aquatic animals in captive and natural environments at the ecological, physiological, and molecular levels.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Dong Zhang
Dr. Ming Duan
Dr. Miao Wang
Dr. Xiangsheng Hong
Dr. Mengmeng Yi
Guest Editors

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Keywords

aquatic animals
water quality
phytoplankton
zooplankton
microorganisms
physiology

Published Papers (11 papers)

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20 pages, 3223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recruitment Patterns and Environmental Sensitivity of Glass Eels of Anguilla japonica in the Yangtze Estuary, China

by Hongyi Guo, Xuguang Zhang, Ya Zhang, Wenqiao Tang and Kai Liu

Biology 2024, 13(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13010056 - 20 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1001

Abstract

The decline of Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) populations in the Yangtze River estuary represents a critical conservation concern. Eleven-years of daily catch data during recruitment periods (i.e., January–April, 2012–2022) indicate that annual catch averaged from 153 to 1108 eels, and show a bimodal pattern in glass eel arrivals. Utilizing seasonal-trend decomposition and generalized additive models, we demonstrated a strong correlation between catch abundance, optimal water temperatures, and lunar cycles. An auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model predicts an increase in glass eel numbers for 2023–2024 but also points to a concerning trend of delayed recruitment timing since 2016, attributable to the 0.48 °C per decade rise in sea surface temperatures. This delay correlates with a significant decrease in the average body weight of glass eels, suggesting potential energy deficits that may hinder successful upstream migration. This study not only furthers our understanding of glass eel recruitment dynamics but also underscores the urgent need for targeted conservation measures. Additionally, it highlights the importance of sustained, detailed monitoring to mitigate the detrimental effects of climate change on these eels, vital for preserving the Yangtze River’s ecological integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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16 pages, 6569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microalgae Inoculation Significantly Shapes the Structure, Alters the Assembly Process, and Enhances the Stability of Bacterial Communities in Shrimp-Rearing Water

by Chen Lian, Jie Xiang, Huifeng Cai, Jiangdong Ke, Heng Ni, Jinyong Zhu, Zhongming Zheng, Kaihong Lu and Wen Yang

Biology 2024, 13(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13010054 - 19 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1134

Abstract

Intensive shrimp farming may lead to adverse environmental consequences due to discharged water effluent. Inoculation of microalgae can moderate the adverse effect of shrimp-farming water. However, how bacterial communities with different lifestyles (free-living (FL) and particle-attached (PA)) respond to microalgal inoculation is unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of two microalgae (Nannochloropsis oculata and Thalassiosira weissflogii) alone or in combination in regulating microbial communities in shrimp-farmed water and their potential applications. PERMANOVA revealed significant differences among treatments in terms of time and lifestyle. Community diversity analysis showed that PA bacteria responded more sensitively to different microalgal treatments than FL bacteria. Redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that the bacterial community was majorly influenced by environmental factors, compared to microalgal direct influence. Moreover, the neutral model analysis and the average variation degree (AVD) index indicated that the addition of microalgae affected the bacterial community structure and stability during the stochastic process, and the PA bacterial community was the most stable with the addition of T. weissflogii. Therefore, the present study revealed the effects of microalgae and nutrient salts on bacterial communities in shrimp aquaculture water by adding microalgae to control the process of community change. This study is important for understanding the microbial community assembly and interpreting complex interactions among zoo-, phyto-, and bacterioplankton in shrimp aquaculture ecosystems. Additionally, these findings may contribute to the sustainable development of shrimp aquaculture and ecosystem conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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20 pages, 2218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Aquatic Plant Coverage on Diversity and Resource Use Efficiency of Phytoplankton in Urban Wetlands: A Case Study in Jinan, China

by Hongjingzheng Jiang, Aoran Lu, Jiaxin Li, Mengdi Ma, Ge Meng, Qi Chen, Gang Liu and Xuwang Yin

Biology 2024, 13(1), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13010044 - 14 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1061

Abstract

With the acceleration of urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystem functions of urban wetlands are facing serious challenges. The loss of aquatic plants in urban wetlands is becoming more frequent and intense due to human activities; nevertheless, the effects of aquatic plants on wetland ecosystems have received less attention. Therefore, we conducted field investigations across 10 urban wetlands in Jinan, Shandong Province, as a case in North China to examine the relationships between aquatic plant coverage and phytoplankton diversity, as well as resource use efficiency (RUE) in urban wetlands. Multivariate regression and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) were used to analyze the water quality, phytoplankton diversity, and RUE. The results demonstrate that the increase in aquatic plant coverage significantly reduced the concentration of total nitrogen and suspended solids’ concentrations and significantly increased the phytoplankton diversity (e.g., species richness and functional diversity). The aquatic plant coverage significantly affected the composition of phytoplankton functional groups; for example, functional groups that had adapted to still-water and low-light conditions became dominant. Furthermore, the increase in phytoplankton diversity improved phytoplankton RUE, highlighting the importance of aquatic plants in maintaining wetland ecosystem functions. This study may provide a scientific basis for the management strategy of aquatic plants in urban wetlands, emphasizing the key role of appropriate aquatic plant cover in maintaining the ecological stability and ecosystem service functions of wetlands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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17 pages, 1812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Hypoxia Stress on Survival, Antioxidant and Anaerobic Metabolic Enzymes, and Related Gene Expression of Red Swamp Crayfish Procambarus clarkii

by Qinghui Zeng, Mingzhong Luo, Lirong Qin, Chao Guo, Jiashou Liu, Tanglin Zhang, Guangpeng Feng and Wei Li

Biology 2024, 13(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13010033 - 06 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1259

Abstract

The red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii is the most reared shrimp in China, but it is often affected by hypoxia stress in the process of seedling culture and adult crayfish culture. The oxygen consumption rate and asphyxiation point of juvenile crayfish (1.17 ± 0.03 g) and subadult crayfish (11.68 ± 0.11 g) at different temperatures (20, 22, 24, 26, and 28 °C) were studied. The survival, glycolysis, and expression of antioxidant genes were compared under 24 h acute hypoxia stress (1, 2, and 3 mg/L) and normal dissolved oxygen (7.5 mg/L). The results showed that the oxygen consumption rate and asphyxiation point of juvenile and subadult crayfish increased with increasing temperatures (20–28 °C). At the same temperature, the oxygen consumption rate and asphyxiation point of juvenile crayfish were significantly higher than those of subadult crayfish (p < 0.05). Within 24 h, the three hypoxia stress environments did not lead to the death of crayfish, indicating that P. clarkii has a strong ability to adapt to hypoxia. Hypoxia stress significantly affected the activities of antioxidant and anaerobic metabolic enzymes and gene expression in juvenile and subadult crayfish. The activities of the superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and the content of lactic acid (LD) in the hepatopancreas of juvenile and subadult crayfish in the hypoxia stress groups increased significantly. The expression levels of SOD mRNA, CAT mRNA, Hsp70 mRNA, and crustin 4 mRNA in the hepatopancreas of juvenile and subadult crayfish in the hypoxia stress groups were significantly higher than those in the control group (p < 0.05), and the higher the degree of hypoxia stress, the higher the expression of each gene. The results showed that the antioxidant system of juvenile crayfish was more sensitive to hypoxia environments, and hypoxia stress resulted in increased stress levels in juvenile crayfish and subadult crayfish. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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30 pages, 7612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Taxonomic and Feeding Trait-Based Analysis of Macroinvertebrates in the Antisana River Basin (Ecuadorian Andean Region)

by Santiago Cabrera-García, Peter L. M. Goethals, Koen Lock, Luis Domínguez-Granda, Marcos Villacís, Remigio Galárraga-Sánchez, Christine Van der heyden and Marie Anne Eurie Forio

Biology 2023, 12(11), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12111386 - 30 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1520

Abstract

High-elevation tropical streams are under increasing threat from human activities and climate change. Specifically, Ecuadorian Andean streams require priority actions such as bioassessment (e.g., biodiversity and functional ecology of macroinvertebrates) in order to generate adequate environmental management policies. Therefore, we investigated the distribution and composition of the macroinvertebrate taxa and their functional feeding groups in relation to the environmental variables in the Antisana river basin (Andean–Ecuadorian Region). We sampled macroinvertebrates from 15 locations to assess ecological conditions (ECs), expressed as the Biological Monitoring Working Party Colombia (BMWP-Col) classes, the Andean Biotic Index (ABI) and the Andean–Amazon Biotic Index (AAMBI). Results indicate that dissolved oxygen saturation, elevation, nutrient concentration and conductivity contributed significantly to the composition of the taxa and functional feeding groups (FFGs). Taxa diversity and FFGs were more abundant in the best EC sites. Shredders (SH) were, overall, dominant and abundant at sites with medium-high ECs. Scrapers constituted the second most prevalent assemblage, exerting dominance at moderate ecological conditions (high altitude and high oxygen saturation). Collector–gathers (CGs) are less sensitive to contamination than the previous two groups but were equally abundant at medium-high EC sites. Collector–filterers (CFs) and parasites (PAs) were less abundant, although the presence of the former was slightly related to better environmental conditions. Predators (PRs) were almost absent throughout the study, but they were collected from poor EC sites. CGs, PAs and PRs showed more tolerance to the presence of human disturbances (e.g., hydraulic constructions or slope erosion). The BMWP-Col index seems to be the best fit for this ecosystem, showing a significant difference in FFG between the index classes, compared to the other indices evaluated. The results of this investigation may be regarded as a fundamental starting point and used in future bioassessment work in other similar ecosystems, particularly high-altitude tropical Ecuadorian streams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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14 pages, 4159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Tetrabromobisphenol A Exposure Induces Gut Microbiota Imbalance and Metabolic Disorders via the Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Signaling Pathway in the Regenerated Gut of Apostichopus japonicus

by Xiaojun Song, Ying Lin, Yinfeng Zhang, Zi Wang, Xiaohan Li, Jixiang Liu, Wenwen Jiang, Jianing Chen, Linxuan Wu, Junjie Rong, Kefeng Xu and Guodong Wang

Biology 2023, 12(11), 1365; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12111365 - 25 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1076

Abstract

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), a commonly utilized brominated flame retardant, is found in many types of abiotic and biotic matrices. TBBPA can increase oxidative stress, disrupt the endocrine system, cause neurodevelopmental disorders and activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors to modulate lipid deposits in aquatic animals. However, the toxic mechanism of TBBPA on the gut microbiota and intestinal health remains unclear. Apostichopus japonicus is an ideal model for studying the relationship between environmental contaminants and intestinal health due to its unique capacity for evisceration and quickly regenerated intestine. In the present study, we investigated the toxic mechanism of TBBPA on the gut microbiota and intestinal health in the regenerated intestine of A. japonicus. The results show that TBBPA exposure decreased the health of the regenerated intestine and the enzymatic activities, alpha diversity indices, and the relative abundance of the gut microbiota. Transcriptome analysis shows that TBBPA exposure affected lipid metabolism via the PPAR signaling pathway during the process of intestinal regeneration in A. japonicus, suggesting that TBBPA exposure can affect the composition and function of the gut microbiota and intestinal health in the regenerated intestine of A. japonicus. These results provide a basis for further research on the potential toxicity of TBBPA to the intestinal health in animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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16 pages, 8311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of Anthropic Pressures on Aquatic Macroinvertebrates: A Functional Trait Approach in the Irtysh River Watershed

by Fei Liu, Fangze Zi, Xinyue Wang, Honghui Zeng, Bin Huo, Chengxin Wang, Jianmin Ge, Shengao Chen and Baoqiang Wang

Biology 2023, 12(10), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12101315 - 08 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1197

Abstract

Little is known about how changes in the biodiversity and functional traits of macroinvertebrates in rivers respond to the responses of anthropic pressures and their driving factors. Macroinvertebrates were sampled at 17 sites in the Irtysh River Basin and classified macroinvertebrates into 10 traits and 38 categories between May and August 2022. Then, we performed R-mode linked to Q-mode (RLQ) analysis and calculated functional richness, evenness, divergence, and Rao’s quadratic entropy (RaoQ) for each site and community-weighted means for each trait category. Our results indicated that there were pronounced alterations in species variability in the urban region. Functional divergence indicated fierce competition among species and considerable niche overlap in the urban region. Functional evenness indicated that species abundance distribution and interspecific functional distance were not uniform in the urban region. Functional richness indicated that the urban region was the strongest region in terms of niche occupation, resource utilization, and buffering capacity for environmental fluctuations. Rao’s quadratic entropy showed that the trait difference of macroinvertebrates was the largest in all regions, which was caused by the gradient environmental difference. Research has revealed that urbanization significantly influences the evolutionary trajectory of macroinvertebrate fauna, culminating in an upsurge in pollution-tolerant species and a convergence of functional traits. We recommend strengthening the control of urban and industrial pollution and wise planning and management of land and water resources to mitigate the impact of anthropogenic destruction on habitat fragmentation in the Irtysh River Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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18 pages, 6407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Gill-Associated Bacterial Community Is More Affected by Exogenous Chlorella pyrenoidosa Addition than the Bacterial Communities of Water and Fish Gut in GIFT Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Aquaculture System

by Shunlong Meng, Huimin Xu, Lu Qin, Xi Chen, Liping Qiu, Dandan Li, Chao Song, Limin Fan, Gengdong Hu and Pao Xu

Biology 2023, 12(9), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12091209 - 05 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1096

Abstract

Microalgae has been widely used in aquaculture to improve both the water environment and fish growth; however, the current understanding of the effects of microalgae addition on the key players involved in regulating the water environment and fish health, such as microorganisms, remains limited. Here, a 50-day mesocosm experiment was set up to simulate the culture of Genetic Improvement of Farmed Tilapia (GIFT, Oreochromis niloticus) with an average weight of 14.18 ± 0.93 g and an average length of 82.77 ± 2.80 mm. Different amounts of Chlorella pyrenoidosa were added into these artificial systems to investigate dynamics of bacterial communities in aquaculture water, fish gill, and gut using amplicon-based high-throughput sequencing technology. Our results showed that Chlorella pyrenoidosa addition increased diversity and network complexity of gill-associated bacterial communities rather than those of the water and gut. Furthermore, more biomarkers in the gill-associated bacterial communities were detected in response to Chlorella pyrenoidosa addition than the water and fish gut samples. These findings highlighted the high sensitivity of gill-associated bacterial communities in response to the Chlorella pyrenoidosa addition, implying Chlorella pyrenoidosa addition could play important roles in regulating the fish mucosal immunity by altering the gill-associated microbiota. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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17 pages, 2374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Short-Term Exposure to pH Reduction on the Behavioral and Physiological Parameters of Juvenile Black Rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii)

by Haixia Li, Jia Zhang, Xiaoyu Ge, Songmeng Chen and Zhen Ma

Biology 2023, 12(6), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12060876 - 17 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1071

Abstract

Coastal areas are subject to greater pH fluctuation and more rapid pH decline as a result of both natural and anthropogenic influences in contrast to open ocean environments. Such variations in pH have the potential to pose a threat to the survival and physiological function of offshore fishes. With the aim of evaluating the impact of short-term pH reduction on the behavioral performance and physiological response of costal fish, the black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii), one of the principal stock-enhanced species, was examined. In the present study, juveniles of the black rockfish with a mean body length of 6.9 ± 0.3 cm and weight of 8.5 ± 0.5 g were exposed to a series of pHs, 7.0, 7.2, 7.4, 7.6, 7.8, and normal seawater (pH 8.0) for 96 h. At the predetermined time points post-exposure (i.e., 0, 12, 24, 48, and 96 h), fish movement behavior was recorded and the specimens were sampled to assess their physiological responses. The results indicate that the lowered pH environment (pH 7.0–7.8) elicited a significant increase in highly mobile behavior, a decrease in immobile behavior, and a significant rise in the metabolic levels of the black rockfish juveniles. Specifically, carbohydrate metabolism was significantly elevated in the pH 7.2 and 7.4 treatments, while lipid metabolism was significantly increased in the pH 7.0, 7.4, and 7.8 treatments. The results of the present study indicate that short-term reductions in pH could ramp up boldness and boost energy expenditure in the black rockfish juveniles, leading to an increased metabolic cost. Additionally, the present investigation revealed that the black rockfish juveniles were capable of adapting to a short-term pH reduction. The findings may provide insight into the underlying physiological mechanisms that govern fish responses to potential decreases in seawater pH in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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13 pages, 1402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ammonia Stress Disturbs Moult Signaling in Juvenile Swimming Crab Portunus trituberculatus

by Daixia Wang, Xiaochen Liu, Yan Shang, Xuee Yu, Baoquan Gao, Jianjian Lv, Jitao Li, Ping Liu, Jian Li and Xianliang Meng

Biology 2023, 12(3), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12030409 - 06 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1582

Abstract

Ammonia is a significant concern during hatchery culture in brachyuran species, and its accumulation may lead to abortive moulting and large-scale deaths of the early juveniles. To date, the underlying mechanism for ammonia-induced alteration of the moulting process is still unknown. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of ammonia on the moulting as well as the potential mechanisms in early juveniles of the swimming crab Portunus trituberculatus, an important aquaculture species in China. We evaluated the survival rate and moulting rate of the juvenile crabs (C2) and analyzed the expression pattern of the genes in key components of molt signaling during a complete moulting cycle under different concentrations of ammonia nitrogen (the control group: <0.1 mg/L; the LA group: 5 mg/L; and the HA group: 20 mg/L). The results showed that: (1) the survival rate in the LA and HA groups was lower than that in the control group at the end of the experiment, and moulting death syndrome (MDS) was only observed in the HA group; (2) the moulting rate was higher in the LA group and lower in the HA group compared to the control group; (3) consistent with the results of the moulting experiment, MIH showed decreased expression, and genes related to ecdysteroid synthesis, ecdysteroid receptors, and responsive effectors exhibited increased expression in the LA group compared to the control group; and (4) although MIH expression was upregulated, increased expression of the genes associated with ecdysteroid synthesis, ecdysteroid receptors and downstream effectors still observed in the HA group. Our results indicated that low levels of ammonia can promote moulting in juvenile swimming crabs by inhibiting the expression of MIH and activating moult signaling, whereas high levels of ammonia inhibit moulting and lead to MDS through impairing moult signaling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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14 pages, 2888 KiB

Open AccessHypothesis

Homogenization of Functional Diversity of Rotifer Communities in Relation to Eutrophication in an Urban River of North China

by Bing Wang and Xuwang Yin

Biology 2023, 12(12), 1488; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12121488 - 04 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1058

Abstract

Rapid urbanization has triggered nutrient loading, which will inevitably lead to the eutrophication of water bodies and further affect the structure of aquatic populations. At present, eutrophication is a significant challenge for urban aquatic ecosystems. However, we still know little about the correlation between eutrophication in urban rivers and the composition of aquatic functional groups. The effects of urban river eutrophication on rotifer communities were investigated using an annual field survey of the Jinan section of the Xiaoqing River, a typical urban river in northern China. Using functional diversity (FD) and beta diversity, the spatiotemporal variation of the aquatic biological functional groups regime along stretches subject to different eutrophication was investigated. The functional evenness (FEve) and functional divergence (FDiv) decreased significantly with the increment of the trophic level index. Functional diversity exhibits an extremely low level across functional groups, with the richness difference (RichDiff) being an important component. The results indicate that eutrophication led to the homogenization of rotifer communities. This can be attributed to the functional homogenization of the rotifer community in the Jinan section of the Xiaoqing River. The observed homogenization may be due to widely distributed species complementing the ecological niche space. Our findings provide valuable information on the conservation of the urban river under the threat of eutrophication caused by high-intensity human activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Relationship between Water Quality and Aquatic Organisms)

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