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4 pages, 186 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects

by Mohammad Rahimi

Batteries 2021, 7(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7010008 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5092

Abstract

The anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO₂), has resulted in a notable climate change and an increase in global average temperature since the mid-20th century [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

Research

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18 pages, 2719 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Lightweight Polymer-Carbon Composite Current Collector for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Marco Fritsch, Matthias Coeler, Karina Kunz, Beate Krause, Peter Marcinkowski, Petra Pötschke, Mareike Wolter and Alexander Michaelis

Batteries 2020, 6(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040060 - 08 Dec 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5919

Abstract

A hermetic dense polymer-carbon composite-based current collector foil (PCCF) for lithium-ion battery applications was developed and evaluated in comparison to state-of-the-art aluminum (Al) foil collector. Water-processed LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ (LMNO) cathode and Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ (LTO) anode [...] Read more.

A hermetic dense polymer-carbon composite-based current collector foil (PCCF) for lithium-ion battery applications was developed and evaluated in comparison to state-of-the-art aluminum (Al) foil collector. Water-processed LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ (LMNO) cathode and Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ (LTO) anode coatings with the integration of a thin carbon primer at the interface to the collector were prepared. Despite the fact that the laboratory manufactured PCCF shows a much higher film thickness of 55 µm compared to Al foil of 19 µm, the electrode resistance was measured to be by a factor of 5 lower compared to the Al collector, which was attributed to the low contact resistance between PCCF, carbon primer and electrode microstructure. The PCCF-C-primer collector shows a sufficient voltage stability up to 5 V vs. Li/Li⁺ and a negligible Li-intercalation loss into the carbon primer. Electrochemical cell tests demonstrate the applicability of the developed PCCF for LMNO and LTO electrodes, with no disadvantage compared to state-of-the-art Al collector. Due to a 50% lower material density, the lightweight and hermetic dense PCCF polymer collector offers the possibility to significantly decrease the mass loading of the collector in battery cells, which can be of special interest for bipolar battery architectures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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14 pages, 873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Physical Manifestation of Side Reactions in the Electrolyte of Lithium-Ion Batteries and Its Impact on the Terminal Voltage Response

by Bharat Balagopal and Mo-Yuen Chow

Batteries 2020, 6(4), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040053 - 31 Oct 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3135

Abstract

Batteries as a multi-disciplinary field have been analyzed from the electrical, material science and electrochemical engineering perspectives. The first principle-based four-dimensional degradation model (4DM) of the battery is used in the article to connect the interdisciplinary sciences that deal with batteries. The 4DM [...] Read more.

Batteries as a multi-disciplinary field have been analyzed from the electrical, material science and electrochemical engineering perspectives. The first principle-based four-dimensional degradation model (4DM) of the battery is used in the article to connect the interdisciplinary sciences that deal with batteries. The 4DM is utilized to identify the physical manifestation that electrolyte degradation has on the battery and the response observed in the terminal voltage. This paper relates the different kinds of side reactions in the electrolyte and the material properties affected due to these side reactions. It goes on to explain the impact the material property changes has on the electrochemical reactions in the battery. This paper discusses how these electrochemical reactions affect the voltage across the terminals of the battery. We determine the relationship the change in the terminal voltage has due to the change in the design properties of the electrolyte. We also determine the impact the changes in the electrolyte material property have on the terminal voltage. In this paper, the lithium ion concentration and the transference number of the electrolyte are analyzed and the impact of their degradation is studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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19 pages, 5803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Physics Equivalent Circuit Models for a Cooling System of a Lithium Ion Battery Pack

by Takumi Yamanaka, Daiki Kihara, Yoichi Takagishi and Tatsuya Yamaue

Batteries 2020, 6(3), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6030044 - 29 Aug 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5538

Abstract

Lithium (Li)-ion battery thermal management systems play an important role in electric vehicles because the performance and lifespan of the batteries are affected by the battery temperature. This study proposes a framework to establish equivalent circuit models (ECMs) that can reproduce the multi-physics [...] Read more.

Lithium (Li)-ion battery thermal management systems play an important role in electric vehicles because the performance and lifespan of the batteries are affected by the battery temperature. This study proposes a framework to establish equivalent circuit models (ECMs) that can reproduce the multi-physics phenomenon of Li-ion battery packs, which includes liquid cooling systems with a unified method. We also demonstrate its utility by establishing an ECM of the thermal management systems of the actual battery packs. Experiments simulating the liquid cooling of a battery pack are performed, and a three-dimensional (3D) model is established. The 3D model reproduces the heat generated by the battery and the heat transfer to the coolant. The results of the 3D model agree well with the experimental data. Further, the relationship between the flow rate and pressure drop or between the flow rate and heat transfer coefficients is predicted with the 3D model, and the data are used for the ECM, which is established using MATLAB Simulink. This investigation confirmed that the ECM’s accuracy is as high as the 3D model even though its computational costs are 96% lower than the 3D model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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19 pages, 2084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cell Replacement Strategies for Lithium Ion Battery Packs

by Nenad G. Nenadic, Thomas A. Trabold and Michael G. Thurston

Batteries 2020, 6(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6030039 - 23 Jul 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8339

Abstract

The economic value of high-capacity battery systems, being used in a wide variety of automotive and energy storage applications, is strongly affected by the duration of their service lifetime. Because many battery systems now feature a very large number of individual cells, it [...] Read more.

The economic value of high-capacity battery systems, being used in a wide variety of automotive and energy storage applications, is strongly affected by the duration of their service lifetime. Because many battery systems now feature a very large number of individual cells, it is necessary to understand how cell-to-cell interactions can affect durability, and how to best replace poorly performing cells to extend the lifetime of the entire battery pack. This paper first examines the baseline results of aging individual cells, then aging of cells in a representative 3S3P battery pack, and compares them to the results of repaired packs. The baseline results indicate nearly the same rate of capacity fade for single cells and those aged in a pack; however, the capacity variation due to a few degrees changes in room temperature (≃±3

^{\circ}

C) is significant (≃±1.5% of capacity of new cell) compared to the percent change of capacity over the battery life cycle in primary applications (≃20–30%). The cell replacement strategies investigation considers two scenarios: early life failure, where one cell in a pack fails prematurely, and building a pack from used cells for less demanding applications. Early life failure replacement found that, despite mismatches in impedance and capacity, a new cell can perform adequately within a pack of moderately aged cells. The second scenario for reuse of lithium ion battery packs examines the problem of assembling a pack for less-demanding applications from a set of aged cells, which exhibit more variation in capacity and impedance than their new counterparts. The cells used in the aging comparison part of the study were deeply discharged, recovered, assembled in a new pack, and cycled. We discuss the criteria for selecting the aged cells for building a secondary pack and compare the performance and coulombic efficiency of the secondary pack to the pack built from new cells and the repaired pack. The pack that employed aged cells performed well, but its efficiency was reduced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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20 pages, 4200 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unification of Internal Resistance Estimation Methods for Li-Ion Batteries Using Hysteresis-Free Equivalent Circuit Models

by S M Rakiul Islam, Sung-Yeul Park and Balakumar Balasingam

Batteries 2020, 6(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020032 - 03 Jun 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7647

Abstract

Internal resistance is one of the important parameters in the Li-Ion battery. This paper identifies it using two different methods: electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and parameter estimation based on equivalent circuit model (ECM). Comparing internal resistance, the conventional parameter estimation method yields a [...] Read more.

Internal resistance is one of the important parameters in the Li-Ion battery. This paper identifies it using two different methods: electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and parameter estimation based on equivalent circuit model (ECM). Comparing internal resistance, the conventional parameter estimation method yields a different value than EIS. Therefore, a hysteresis-free parameter identification method based on ECM is proposed. The proposed technique separates hysteresis resistance from the effective resistance. It precisely estimated actual internal resistance, which matches the internal resistance obtained from EIS. In addition, state of charge, open circuit voltage, and different internal equivalent circuit components were identified. The least square method was used to identify the parameters based on ECM. A parameter extraction algorithm to interpret impedance spectrum obtained from the EIS. The algorithm is based on the properties of Nyquist plot, phasor algebra, and resonances. Experiments were conducted using a cellphone pouch battery and a cylindrical 18650 battery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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28 pages, 7873 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comprehensive Hazard Analysis of Failing Automotive Lithium-Ion Batteries in Overtemperature Experiments

by Christiane Essl, Andrey W. Golubkov, Eva Gasser, Manfred Nachtnebel, Armin Zankel, Eduard Ewert and Anton Fuchs

Batteries 2020, 6(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020030 - 18 May 2020

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 10970

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are gaining importance in the automotive sector because of the potential of electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. However, there are serious hazards resulting from failing battery cells leading to exothermic chemical reactions inside the [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are gaining importance in the automotive sector because of the potential of electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. However, there are serious hazards resulting from failing battery cells leading to exothermic chemical reactions inside the cell, called thermal runaway (TR). Literature of quantifying the failing behavior of modern automotive high capacity cells is rare and focusing on single hazard categories such as heat generation. Thus, the aim of this study is to quantify several hazard relevant parameters of a failing currently used battery cell extracted from a modern mass-produced EV: the temperature response of the cell, the maximum reached cell surface temperature, the amount of produced vent gas, the gas venting rate, the composition of the produced gases including electrolyte vapor and the size and composition of the produced particles at TR. For this purpose, overtemperature experiments with fresh 41 Ah automotive lithium NMC/LMO—graphite pouch cells at different state-of-charge (SOC) 100%, 30% and 0% are performed. The results are valuable for firefighters, battery pack designers, cell recyclers, cell transportation and all who deal with batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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12 pages, 2378 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Particle Size Distribution on the Cahn-Hilliard Dynamics in a Cathode of Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Pavel L’vov and Renat Sibatov

Batteries 2020, 6(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020029 - 15 May 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4372

Abstract

The phase-field model based on the Cahn-Hilliard equation is employed to simulate lithium intercalation dynamics in a cathode with particles of distributed size. We start with a simplified phase-field model for a single submicron particle under galvanostatic condition. We observe two stages associated [...] Read more.

The phase-field model based on the Cahn-Hilliard equation is employed to simulate lithium intercalation dynamics in a cathode with particles of distributed size. We start with a simplified phase-field model for a single submicron particle under galvanostatic condition. We observe two stages associated with single-phase and double-phase patterns typical for both charging and discharging processes. The single-phase stage takes approximately 10–15% of the process and plays an important role in the intercalation dynamics. We establish the laws for speed of front propagation and evolution of single-phase concentration valid for different sizes of electrode particles and a wide range of temperatures and C-rates. The universality of these laws allows us to formulate the boundary condition with time-dependent flux density for the Cahn-Hilliard equation and analyze the phase-field intercalation in a heterogeneous cathode characterized by the particle size distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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20 pages, 5064 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Operando Impedance Spectroscopy and Ultrasonic Measurements during High-Temperature Abuse Experiments on Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Hendrik Zappen, Georg Fuchs, Alexander Gitis and Dirk Uwe Sauer

Batteries 2020, 6(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020025 - 22 Apr 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7866

Abstract

Lithium-Ion batteries are used in ever more demanding applications regarding operating range and safety requirements. This work presents a series of high-temperature abuse experiments on a nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC)/graphite lithium-ion battery cell, using advanced in-operando measurement techniques like fast impedance spectroscopy and ultrasonic [...] Read more.

Lithium-Ion batteries are used in ever more demanding applications regarding operating range and safety requirements. This work presents a series of high-temperature abuse experiments on a nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC)/graphite lithium-ion battery cell, using advanced in-operando measurement techniques like fast impedance spectroscopy and ultrasonic waves, as well as strain-gauges. the presented results show, that by using these methods degradation effects at elevated temperature can be observed in real-time. These methods have the potential to be integrated into a battery management system in the future. Therefore they make it possible to achieve higher battery safety even under the most demanding operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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12 pages, 6285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrical Modelling and Investigation of Laser Beam Welded Joints for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Sören Hollatz, Sebastian Kremer, Cem Ünlübayir, Dirk Uwe Sauer, Alexander Olowinsky and Arnold Gillner

Batteries 2020, 6(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020024 - 21 Apr 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6858

Abstract

The growing electrification of vehicles and tools increases the demand for low resistance contacts. Today’s batteries for electric vehicles consist of large quantities of single battery cells to reach the desired nominal voltage and energy. Each single cell needs a contacting of its [...] Read more.

The growing electrification of vehicles and tools increases the demand for low resistance contacts. Today’s batteries for electric vehicles consist of large quantities of single battery cells to reach the desired nominal voltage and energy. Each single cell needs a contacting of its cell terminals, which raises the necessity of an automated contacting process with low joint resistances to reduce the energy loss in the cell transitions. A capable joining process suitable for highly electrically conductive materials like copper or aluminium is the laser beam welding. This study contains the theoretical examination of the joint resistance and a simulation of the current flow dependent on the contacting welds’ position in an overlap configuration. The results are verified by examinations of laser-welded joints in a test bench environment. The investigations are analysing the influence of the shape and position of the weld seams as well as the influence of the laser welding parameters. The investigation identifies a tendency for current to flow predominantly through a contact’s edges. The use of a double weld seam with the largest possible distance greatly increases the joint’s conductivity, by leveraging this tendency and implementing a parallel connection. A simplistic increase of welded contact area does not only have a significantly smaller effect on the overall conductivity, but can eventually also reduce it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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9 pages, 781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Impact of Manufacturing Tolerance on Lithium-Ion Electrode and Cell Physical Properties

by William Yourey

Batteries 2020, 6(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6020023 - 15 Apr 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5328

Abstract

The range of electrode porosity, electrode internal void volume, cell capacity, and capacity ratio that result from electrode coating and calendering tolerance can play a considerable role in cell-to-cell and lot-to-lot performance variation. Based on a coating loading tolerance of ±0.4 mg/cm² [...] Read more.

The range of electrode porosity, electrode internal void volume, cell capacity, and capacity ratio that result from electrode coating and calendering tolerance can play a considerable role in cell-to-cell and lot-to-lot performance variation. Based on a coating loading tolerance of ±0.4 mg/cm² and calender tolerance of ±3.0 μm, the resulting theoretical range of physical properties was investigated. For a target positive electrode porosity of 30%, the resulting porosity can range from 19.6% to 38.6%. To account for this variation during the manufacturing process, as much as 41% excess or as little as 59% of the target electrolyte quantity should be added to cells to match the positive electrode void volume. Similar results are reported for a negative electrode of 40% target porosity, where a range from 30.8% to 48.0% porosity is possible. For the negative electrode as little as 72% up to 28% excess electrolyte should be added to fill the internal void space. Although the results are specific to each electrode composition, density, chemistry, and loading the presented process highlight the possible variability of the produced parts. These results are further magnified as cell design moves toward higher power applications with thinner electrode coatings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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20 pages, 7538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Laser-Generated Cutting Edges on the Electrical Performance of Large Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells

by Tobias Jansen, Maja W. Kandula, Sven Hartwig, Louisa Hoffmann, Wolfgang Haselrieder and Klaus Dilger

Batteries 2019, 5(4), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040073 - 03 Dec 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7377

Abstract

Laser cutting is a promising technology for the singulation of conventional and advanced electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Even though the continuous development of laser sources, beam guiding, and handling systems enable industrial relevant high cycle times, there are still uncertainties regarding the influence [...] Read more.

Laser cutting is a promising technology for the singulation of conventional and advanced electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Even though the continuous development of laser sources, beam guiding, and handling systems enable industrial relevant high cycle times, there are still uncertainties regarding the influence of, for this process, typical cutting edge characteristics on the electrochemical performance. To investigate this issue, conventional anodes and cathodes were cut by a pulsed fiber laser with a central emission wavelength of 1059–1065 nm and a pulse duration of 240 ns. Based on investigations considering the pulse repetition frequency, cutting speed, and line energy, a cell setup of anodes and cathodes with different cutting edge characteristics were selected. The experiments on 9 Ah pouch cells demonstrated that the cutting edge of the cathode had a greater impact on the electrochemical performance than the cutting edge of the anode. Furthermore, the results pointed out that on the cathode side, the contamination through metal spatters, generated by the laser current collector interaction, had the largest impact on the electrochemical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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9 pages, 3810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Current Rate and Prior Cycling on the Coulombic Efficiency of a Lithium-Ion Battery

by Seyed Saeed Madani, Erik Schaltz and Søren Knudsen Kær

Batteries 2019, 5(3), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5030057 - 16 Aug 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 9515

Abstract

The determination of coulombic efficiency of the lithium-ion batteries can contribute to comprehend better their degradation behavior. In this research, the coulombic efficiency and capacity loss of three lithium-ion batteries at different current rates (C) were investigated. Two new battery cells were discharged [...] Read more.

The determination of coulombic efficiency of the lithium-ion batteries can contribute to comprehend better their degradation behavior. In this research, the coulombic efficiency and capacity loss of three lithium-ion batteries at different current rates (C) were investigated. Two new battery cells were discharged and charged at 0.4 C and 0.8 C for twenty times to monitor the variations in the aging and coulombic efficiency of the battery cell. In addition, prior cycling was applied to the third battery cell which consist of charging and discharging with 0.2 C, 0.4 C, 0.6 C, and 0.8 C current rates and each of them twenty times. The coulombic efficiency of the new battery cells was compared with the cycled one. The experiments demonstrated that approximately all the charge that was stored in the battery cell was extracted out of the battery cell, even at the bigger charging and discharging currents. The average capacity loss rates for discharge and charge during 0.8 C were approximately 0.44% and 0.45% per cycle, correspondingly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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9 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Future Portable Li-Ion Cells’ Recycling Challenges in Poland

by Agnieszka Sobianowska-Turek and Weronika Urbańska

Batteries 2019, 5(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040075 - 12 Dec 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5899

Abstract

The paper presents the market of portable lithium-ion batteries in the European Union (EU) with particular emphasis on the stream of used Li-ion cells in Poland by 2030. In addition, the article draws attention to the fact that, despite a decade of efforts [...] Read more.

The paper presents the market of portable lithium-ion batteries in the European Union (EU) with particular emphasis on the stream of used Li-ion cells in Poland by 2030. In addition, the article draws attention to the fact that, despite a decade of efforts in Poland, it has not been possible to create an effective management system for waste batteries and accumulators that would include waste management (collection and selective sorting), waste disposal (a properly selected mechanical method) and component recovery technology for reuse (pyrometallurgical and/or hydrometallurgical methods). This paper also brings attention to the fact that this EU country with 38 million people does not have in its area a recycling process for used cells of the first type of zinc-carbon, zinc-manganese or zinc-air, as well as the secondary type of nickel-hydride and lithium-ion, which in the stream of chemical waste energy sources will be growing from year to year. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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