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Applied Sciences
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Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications
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Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2021) | Viewed by 16212

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Fortunato Crea

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering Department, University of Calabria, 87036 Cosenza, Italy
Interests: building materials; innovative families of binders; microporous materials; fabric-reinforced cementitious composites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Sebastiano Candamano

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering Department, University of Calabria, 87036 Cosenza, Italy
Interests: building materials; innovative families of binders; greenhouse gas emission; pollutant degradation; photocatalysis; globalization; geopolymers; durability and sustainability of traditional or innovative mortars
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Alkali-activated and calcium solfoaluminate binders are receiving increasing attention in the civil, materials, and environmental research fields as potential alternatives to traditional Portland cement, and they have been promoted as sustainable cementing binder systems.

Nevertheless, many problems remain, such as relevant shrinkage, efflorescence, lack of specific additives to regulate properties, optimization and standardization of mix designs based on performance specifications, a wide range of raw materials and activators, and a lack of analysis and standards to test durability.

This Special Issue aims to collect scientific contributions on strategies, manufacturing approaches, and materials, devoted to providing systematic or predictive information on microstructure, mechanical properties, and durability of alkali-activated and calcium solfoaluminate binders and to suggest validation and standardization methods of testing.

Prof. Fortunato Crea
Dr. Sebastiano Candamano
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • alkali-activated materials
  • geopolymers
  • building materials
  • calcium solfoaluminate binders
  • cementitious composites
  • hybrid binders
  • calcinated clays
  • fly ash
  • blast furnace slag
  • natural pozzolans
  • waste management
  • immobilization of toxic wastes
  • foamed and lightweight concretes
  • mortars
  • grouts and renders
  • reinforced concrete
  • precast concrete
  • corrosion
  • durability
  • environmental assessment
  • materials processing
  • rheology
  • performance-based specifications
  • activators
  • additives
  • corrosion durability
  • fire resistance
  • refractory performance
  • one-part and two-part binder systems

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 4691 KiB  
Article
Steel Corrosion Behavior in Light Weight Fly-Ash Based Alkali Activated Mortars
by Giulia Masi
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(4), 1908; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041908 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1444
Abstract
Alkali activated materials as possible sustainable alternative to cementitious binders showed competitive performances in terms of mechanical and durability properties and high temperature stability. For this reason, light weight fly-ash based mortars have already been optimized as passive fire protective coating for steel [...] Read more.
Alkali activated materials as possible sustainable alternative to cementitious binders showed competitive performances in terms of mechanical and durability properties and high temperature stability. For this reason, light weight fly-ash based mortars have already been optimized as passive fire protective coating for steel structures. However, a lack of information about the durability of these innovative systems in terms of steel corrosion resistance is still present. Thus, this study aims at investigating the durability of steel coated with a 20-mm thick light weight mortar layer in a neutral environment (tap water) and in presence of chloride-containing solution (0.2 M NaCl). In addition, the influence of pore solution chemistry and pH was discussed through electrochemical testing in leachate pore solution and NaOH aqueous solutions at different concentrations. It was found that almost complete protection ability of light weight mortar was obtained when coated steel is exposed to neutral solution for 60 days, while in presence of chlorides, steel is more susceptible to corrosion already after 40 days of exposure. In addition, the developed open porosity of the light weight mortars, it was found that pH and the chemistry of the pore solution in contact with steel strongly influenced the steel corrosion resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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14 pages, 5619 KiB  
Article
The Incorporation of Steel Slag into Belite-Sulfoaluminate Cement Clinkers
by Lea Žibret, Katarina Šter, Maruša Borštnar, Mojca Loncnar and Sabina Dolenec
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(4), 1840; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041840 - 19 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2727
Abstract
The potential use of steel slag from treated steel slag in belite-sulfoaluminate cements was investigated in this study. Cement clinkers with two phase compositions were synthesized, allowing the incorporation of different amounts of steel slag. The phase composition and microstructure of cement clinkers [...] Read more.
The potential use of steel slag from treated steel slag in belite-sulfoaluminate cements was investigated in this study. Cement clinkers with two phase compositions were synthesized, allowing the incorporation of different amounts of steel slag. The phase composition and microstructure of cement clinkers at three different sintering temperatures were studied by X-ray powder diffraction and the Rietveld method, as well as scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry. The results showed that the targeted phase composition of clinkers was achieved at a sintering temperature of 1250 °C. However, a higher amount of perovskite instead of ferrite was detected in the clinker with a higher content of Ti-bearing bauxite. Apart from the main phases, such as belite, calcium sulfoaluminate, and ferrite, several minor phases were identified, including mayenite, perovskite, periclase, and alkali sulfates. In both clinker mixtures, a higher content of MgO in the steel slags resulted in the formation of periclase. Furthermore, the hydration kinetics and compressive strength at 7 and 28 days were studied in two cements prepared from clinkers sintered at 1250 °C. As evidenced by the results of isothermal calorimetry, the hydration kinetics were also influenced by the minor clinker phases. Cement with a higher content of calcium sulfoaluminate phase developed a higher compressive strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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14 pages, 3598 KiB  
Article
Use of Potabilized Water Sludge in the Production of Low-Energy Blended Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cements
by Antonio Telesca, Neluta Ibris and Milena Marroccoli
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(4), 1679; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041679 - 13 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1693
Abstract
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) manufacture determines about 8% of the global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This has led to both the cement producers and the scientific community to develop new cementitious materials with a reduced carbon footprint. Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements are special [...] Read more.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) manufacture determines about 8% of the global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This has led to both the cement producers and the scientific community to develop new cementitious materials with a reduced carbon footprint. Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements are special hydraulic binders from non-Portland clinkers; they represent an important alternative to OPC due to their peculiar composition and significantly lower impact on the environment. CSA cements contain less limestone and require lower synthesis temperatures, which means a reduced kiln thermal energy demand and lower CO2 emissions. CSA cements can also be mixed with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) which further reduce the carbon footprint. This article was aimed at evaluating the possibility of using different amounts (20 and 35% by mass) of water potabilization sludges (WPSs) as SCM in CSA-blended cements. WPSs were treated thermally (TT) at 700° in order to obtain an industrial pozzolanic material. The hydration properties and the technical behavior of two different CSA-blended cements were investigated using differential thermal–thermogravimetric and X-ray diffraction analyses, mercury intrusion porosimetry, shrinkage/expansion and compressive strength measurements. The results showed that CSA binders containing 20% by mass of TTWPSs exhibited technological properties similar to those relating to plain CSA cement and were characterized by more pronounced eco-friendly features. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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24 pages, 10824 KiB  
Article
Development of Eco-Friendly Cement Using a Calcium Sulfoaluminate Expansive Agent Blended with Slag and Silica Fume
by Taewan Kim, Ki-Young Seo, Choonghyun Kang and Tak-Kee Lee
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(1), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010394 - 04 Jan 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2203
Abstract
This is an experimental study on the development of a low-carbon, eco-friendly cement containing a calcium sulfoaluminate expansive agent (CSAe), slag, and silica fume (SF). The cement to be developed has a low water/binder ratio (w/b) of 0.5 and [...] Read more.
This is an experimental study on the development of a low-carbon, eco-friendly cement containing a calcium sulfoaluminate expansive agent (CSAe), slag, and silica fume (SF). The cement to be developed has a low water/binder ratio (w/b) of 0.5 and is designed to be used for structural purposes, with focus on its mechanical performance. CSAe, slag, and SF were mixed at various mixing ratios. The main hydration product of the slag-based CSAe cement in the experiment was ettringite. Substituting less than 30% of CSAe showed a sufficient level of mechanical performance; that is, the material could be used as structural cement. SF controlled the excessive expansion of CSAe. However, since the developed slag-CSAe-SF cement has low early age (1 d) strength, follow-up research is needed for improvement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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14 pages, 5348 KiB  
Article
One-Part Alkali-Activated Pastes and Mortars Prepared with Metakaolin and Biomass Ash
by Alessandra Mobili, Francesca Tittarelli and Hubert Rahier
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(16), 5610; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165610 - 13 Aug 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2212
Abstract
Common alkali-activated materials (AAMs) are usually manufactured with highly alkaline solutions. However, alkaline solutions are dangerous for workers who must wear gloves, masks, and glasses when handling them. This issue makes common (or two-part) AAMs not user-friendly and problematic for bulk production if [...] Read more.
Common alkali-activated materials (AAMs) are usually manufactured with highly alkaline solutions. However, alkaline solutions are dangerous for workers who must wear gloves, masks, and glasses when handling them. This issue makes common (or two-part) AAMs not user-friendly and problematic for bulk production if no safety procedures are followed. In this paper, the possibility of manufacturing alkali-activated pastes and mortars without alkaline solution is investigated. These innovative one-part AAMs have been prepared with metakaolin as the aluminosilicate precursor, potassium-rich biomass ash as the alkaline activator, and water. AAMs have been prepared by varying the K/Al molar ratio: pastes have been studied in terms of reaction kinetics, through isothermal calorimetry, and mortars have been tested in terms of mechanical compressive strength. Results show that the K/Al molar ratio governs both the reaction kinetics and the mechanical strength of these innovative materials. The highest compressive strength is obtained when the K/Al ratio is equal to 2.5 and the water/solid ratio is equal to 0.49. If biomass ash is heated at 700 °C to decompose the calcium carbonate, its reactivity and the final compressive strength increase. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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21 pages, 3739 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Characterization of Basalt Fabric-Reinforced Alkali-Activated Matrix Composite: A Preliminary Investigation
by Sebastiano Candamano, Fortunato Crea and Antonio Iorfida
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(8), 2865; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10082865 - 21 Apr 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2340
Abstract
Fabric-reinforced cementitious composites are a recent family of commercial products devoted to the external retrofitting and strengthening of masonry and concrete structures. In the present work, the authors investigate the possibility of using, as matrix, a mortar based on alkali-activated materials. Basalt textile [...] Read more.
Fabric-reinforced cementitious composites are a recent family of commercial products devoted to the external retrofitting and strengthening of masonry and concrete structures. In the present work, the authors investigate the possibility of using, as matrix, a mortar based on alkali-activated materials. Basalt textile was selected as reinforcement because it is an effective, low-cost and environmentally friendly reinforcement. The matrix was prepared using by-products of industrial processes. Mortar was characterized by measuring its drying shrinkage, capillary water absorption, compressive and flexural strengths and analyzed using X-Ray diffractometry, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The mechanical behavior of the composites was investigated through tensile and direct shear tests. The basalt fabric-reinforced alkali-activated matrix composite showed, under tension, a tri-linear response curve, mainly governed by cracks development and widening. The measured ultimate stress, ultimate strain and tensile modulus of elasticity in region III were 434 MPa (CoV 14.2%), 2.192% (CoV 4.1%) and 39 GPa (CoV 11.3%), respectively. The load–global slip response curves of the composite show an average peak load around 1148 N (CoV 23.0%) and an exploitation ratio versus the textile and the tensile of 0.40 and 0.86, respectively. Even if the preliminary results are encouraging, the performance of FRAAM composites would be positively affected by an increase of the dimensional stability of the matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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Graphical abstract

12 pages, 3238 KiB  
Article
Influence of Lithium Carbonate and Sodium Carbonate on Physical and Elastic Properties and on Carbonation Resistance of Calcium Sulphoaluminate-Based Mortars
by Luigi Coppola, Denny Coffetti, Elena Crotti, Raffaella Dell’Aversano, Gabriele Gazzaniga and Tommaso Pastore
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(1), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10010176 - 25 Dec 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2707
Abstract
In this study, three different hardening accelerating admixtures (sodium carbonate, lithium carbonate and a blend of sodium and lithium carbonates) were employed to prepare calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based mortars. The workability, setting times, entrapped air, elasto-mechanical properties such as compressive strength and dynamic modulus [...] Read more.
In this study, three different hardening accelerating admixtures (sodium carbonate, lithium carbonate and a blend of sodium and lithium carbonates) were employed to prepare calcium sulphoaluminate cement-based mortars. The workability, setting times, entrapped air, elasto-mechanical properties such as compressive strength and dynamic modulus of elasticity, free shrinkage, water absorption and carbonation rate were measured and mercury intrusion porosimetry were also performed. Experimental results show that a mixture of lithium carbonate and sodium carbonate acts as a hardening accelerating admixture, improving the early-age strength and promoting a remarkable pore structure refinement. Finally, sodium carbonate also reduces the water absorption, the carbonation rate and the shrinkage of mortars without affecting the setting times and the workability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alkali Activated and Calcium Solfoaluminate Binders: Sustainability, Properties, and Applications)
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