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Agronomy
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Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural...
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Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Use and Irrigation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2022) | Viewed by 18463

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jesus Ochoa

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Departament of Agronomic Engineering, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Paseo Alfonso XIII 48, E-30203 Cartagena, Spain
Interests: landscape and urban greening; ecological green roofs; living walls; urban horticulture; irrigation; saline water and reclaimed wastewater use for landscape plants and urban horticulture; growing media; sustainable drainage systems (SuDS); nature-based solutions (NBS); smart gardening
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. María José Gómez-Bellot

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Irrigation Department, Spanish National Research Council (CEBAS-CSIC), Murcia, Spain
Interests: saline water and reclaimed wastewater; plant environmental stress; ecophysiology; water use efficiency; plant water status indicators; arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; plant growth-promoting bacteria; horticultural crops
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Under the scenario of climate change, irrigation water is one of the most critical and scarce resources for agricultural production, especially in arid and semiarid regions. The use of non-conventional water resources, such as saline water and recycled wastewater, has become a common alternative for efficient water management, which allows us to alleviate the strain on other water resources. However, depending on its sources and/or treatment, non conventional water may have high salt contents and, among others, may contain toxic elements. Salinity is one of the most significant environmental challenges limiting the establishment, growth and productivity of plants. Therefore, knowledge of plants’ physiological responses to this type of water and the possible mechanisms of tolerance to mitigate salt damage may allow farmers developing crop management strategies to obtain good plant production and quality. In this sense, plants’ physiological responses to salinity include changes in nutrient uptake, water relations, transpiration, gas exchange, growth and biochemical changes.

The aim of this Special Issue is to encourage the publication of works dealing with the physiological response of plants (including plants for food and landscaping purposes) irrigated with saline and recycled wastewater, the possible degree of plant tolerance and the development of water management strategies.

Dr. Jesus Ochoa
Dr. María José Gómez-Bellot
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Salinity stress
  • Reclaimed wastewater
  • Plant–soil-based water status indicators
  • Water use efficiency
  • Gas exchange
  • Nutrient imbalance
  • Osmotic regulation
  • Biochemical changes
  • Salt tolerance mechanisms
  • Irrigation and soil management

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 2370 KiB  
Article
Response of Potted Hebe andersonii to Salinity under an Efficient Irrigation Management
by Daniel Bañón, Juan José Alarcón, María Jesús Sánchez-Blanco, María Fernanda Ortuño, Sebastián Bañón, Beatriz Lorente and Jesús Ochoa
Agronomy 2022, 12(7), 1696; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071696 - 18 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1671
Abstract
Although the use of marginal-quality water can be an effective measure to alleviate water scarcity, it often contains a high concentration of salts that can compromise crop growth. As a result, farmers apply more water than necessary to leach salts away from the [...] Read more.
Although the use of marginal-quality water can be an effective measure to alleviate water scarcity, it often contains a high concentration of salts that can compromise crop growth. As a result, farmers apply more water than necessary to leach salts away from the root zone, resulting in wasted water and the release of fertilizers into the groundwater. In this study, we assessed the effects of three salinity levels of irrigation water (1.8 dS m−1, 3.3 dS m−1, and 4.9 dS m−1) on the physiology and ornamental traits of Hebe andersonii cv. Variegata. The experiment was carried out with potted plants in a greenhouse for seven months. We also studied the feasibility of growing this cultivar without leaching salts. The results showed that Hebe plants can be grown without leaching using water up to 3 dS m−1. This setup produces plants with high water use efficiency and without reducing their ornamental value. Meanwhile, irrigation with 5 dS m−1 water reduced the quality of Hebe but did not compromise its physiological processes. The photosynthesis of Hebe under salinity conditions was mainly controlled by stomata, which was related to the level of salt stress and water status of the plant. Salinity had no significant effects on photosystem II, which can be explained by the fact that Hebe was able to dissipate the excess excitation energy as heat effectively. Hebe was able to avoid ion toxicity and maintain a suitable nutrient balance under the salinity levels tested in this experiment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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15 pages, 3839 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Salinity Stress on Antioxidant Response and Bioactive Compounds of Nepeta cataria L.
by Constantin Lungoci, Iuliana Motrescu, Feodor Filipov, Carmenica Doina Jitareanu, Gabriel-Ciprian Teliban, Carmen Simona Ghitau, Ioan Puiu and Teodor Robu
Agronomy 2022, 12(3), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12030562 - 24 Feb 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2294
Abstract
In this study, the ability of Nepeta cataria L. to grow and synthesize bioactive compounds on soil treated with different salt concentrations was tested to evaluate the opportunity of cultivating it in soils affected by salinization. N. cataria L. was grown in soil [...] Read more.
In this study, the ability of Nepeta cataria L. to grow and synthesize bioactive compounds on soil treated with different salt concentrations was tested to evaluate the opportunity of cultivating it in soils affected by salinization. N. cataria L. was grown in soil containing specific amounts of NaCl, Na2SO4, and their mixture. After harvesting, the plants were analyzed from the morphological and physiological point of view. Salinity stress inhibited the growth, with the highest decrease of the plant yield up to about 70% in the case of salt mixture, and smaller values for the separate salt treatments. In the same time, as a defense mechanism, there was an increase of granular trichomes’ density, as observed with the scanning electron microscope. For mild concentrations of salt, the amount of chlorophyll pigments was enhanced, while for stronger salinity stress, it decreased. The opposite behavior was evidenced for the polyphenol content, as antioxidant activity was used as a protective mechanism against reactive oxygen species produced under salinity stress. The antioxidant activity was considerably higher for separate NaCl and Na2SO4 treatments than for the salt mixture variants. The results showed that the species Nepeta cataria L. reacts well to high salinity levels, with an increased content of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity even for the highest studied salinity conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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16 pages, 2158 KiB  
Article
Lead-Tolerant Bacillus Strains Promote Growth and Antioxidant Activities of Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) Treated with Sewage Water
by Najm-ul-Seher, Maqshoof Ahmad, Iqra Ahmad, Farheen Nazli, Muhammad Zahid Mumtaz, Muhammad Latif, Mobarak S. Al-Mosallam, Fahad S. Alotaibi, Ahmed Z. Dewidar, Mohamed A. Mattar and Ahmed A. El-Shafei
Agronomy 2021, 11(12), 2482; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122482 - 07 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2555
Abstract
Irrigation with sewage-contaminated water poses a serious threat to food security, particularly in developing countries. Heavy metal tolerant bacteria are sustainable alternatives for the removal of wastewater contaminants. In the present study, four lead (Pb)-tolerant strains viz. Bacillus megaterium (N8), Bacillus safensis [...] Read more.
Irrigation with sewage-contaminated water poses a serious threat to food security, particularly in developing countries. Heavy metal tolerant bacteria are sustainable alternatives for the removal of wastewater contaminants. In the present study, four lead (Pb)-tolerant strains viz. Bacillus megaterium (N8), Bacillus safensis (N11), Bacillus sp. (N18), and Bacillus megaterium (N29) were inoculated in spinach and grown in sewage water treated earthen pots separately and in combination with canal water. Results showed that Pb-tolerant strains significantly improved plant growth and antioxidant activities in spinach and reduces metal concentration in roots and leaves of spinach plants irrigated with treated wastewater. Strain Bacillus sp. (N18) followed by B. safensis (N11) caused the maximum increase in shoot length, root length, shoot fresh weight, root fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, and leaf area compared to the uninoculated control of sewage water treated plants. These strains also improved antioxidant enzymatic activity including catalase, guaiacol peroxidase dismutase, superoxide dismutase, and peroxidases activities compared to the uninoculated control under sewage water conditions. Strain Bacillus sp. (N18) followed by B. safensis (N11) showed the highest reduction in nickel, cadmium, chromium, and Pb contents in roots and leaves of spinach compared to the uninoculated control plants treated with the sewage water. Such potential Pb-tolerant Bacillus strains could be recommended for the growth promotion of spinach after extensive evaluation under field conditions contaminated with wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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14 pages, 1433 KiB  
Article
Potential Utilization of Diluted Seawater for the Cultivation of Some Summer Vegetable Crops: Physiological and Nutritional Implications
by Hafiz Muhammad Rashad Javeed, Xiukang Wang, Mazhar Ali, Fahim Nawaz, Rafi Qamar, Atique ur Rehman, Muhammad Shehzad, Muhammad Mubeen, Rubab Shabbir, Talha Javed, Ferdinando Branca, Sunny Ahmar and Ismail A. Ismail
Agronomy 2021, 11(9), 1826; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091826 - 12 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2316
Abstract
Freshwater alternatives to irrigate crops are in dire need of time because of changing climate and scarcity of freshwater. Therefore, seawater can be the best feasible option as it is abundantly available on Earth. Sole application of seawater for agricultural crops is impossible, [...] Read more.
Freshwater alternatives to irrigate crops are in dire need of time because of changing climate and scarcity of freshwater. Therefore, seawater can be the best feasible option as it is abundantly available on Earth. Sole application of seawater for agricultural crops is impossible, but the blend with freshwater may not be aggravating the salinization problems in soils. The present investigation was conducted to evaluate the possibility of growing the short period summer vegetables i.e., eggplants, tomato, and pepper with fresh and seawater blends viz. 5%, 10% and 20%, termed as A, B and C treatments, respectively. During the experiment, we considered: (i) crop growth, biomass yield, water consumption, water use efficiency (WUE) and water productivity (WP); (ii) photosynthetic pigments and gas exchange parameters; (iii) concentration of mineral contents and quality traits; (iv) lipid peroxidation, proline contents and ascorbic acid. Tomato productivity was markedly decreased by application of B and C treatments, whereas the growth of eggplant and pepper were not much influenced at the same concentrations. Water consumption dropped, whereas WUE significantly increased in all tested crops upon increasing seawater concentrations. Leaf Na+ concentration and other mineral elements increased. These results assumed that certain concentrations of seawater–freshwater blends revealed that there were no significant effects on the quality characteristics, mineral elements concentration and productivity of eggplant and pepper plants; however, tomato plants indicated sensitivity at the three seawater concentrations (A, B and C SFW treatments). Moreover, low concentrations of salinity stress (5% and 10% SFW) seemed to be necessary to attain better crop nutrition and organoleptic values. Accordingly, the results of present will be helpful to coastline farmers in cultivating vegetables and produce nutritive food for their family. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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18 pages, 3400 KiB  
Article
Effects of Various Quantities of Three Irrigation Water Types on Yield and Fruit Quality of ‘Succary’ Date Palm
by Mohamed A. Mattar, Said S. Soliman and Rashid S. Al-Obeed
Agronomy 2021, 11(4), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11040796 - 18 Apr 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3287
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted on date palm trees (Phoenix dactylifera ‘Succary’) cultivated on sandy loam soil from 2017 to 2018. This study investigated the effects of providing water of three different qualities, namely freshwater (FR) and two saline water sources: reclaimed [...] Read more.
A field experiment was conducted on date palm trees (Phoenix dactylifera ‘Succary’) cultivated on sandy loam soil from 2017 to 2018. This study investigated the effects of providing water of three different qualities, namely freshwater (FR) and two saline water sources: reclaimed wastewater (RW) and well-water (WE) applied through three irrigation levels representing 50% (I50), 100% (I100), and 150% (I150) of crop evapotranspiration (ETc), on the soil water and salt distribution patterns, yield, water productivity (WP), and fruit quality of the ′Succary′ date palm. The electrical conductivity (ECw) of FR, RW, and WE were 0.18, 2.06, and 3.94 dS m−1, respectively. Results showed that WE applied by the I150 treatment had the highest soil water content, followed by RW used in the I100 irrigation level and FR with I50, whereas the soil salt content was high for WE applied in the I50 level and low for FR applied by the I150 treatment. Deficit irrigation (I50) of date palms with either RW or WE reduced date yields on average 86 kg per tree, whereas the yield increased under over-irrigation (I150) with FR to 123.25 kg per tree. High WP values were observed in the I50 treatments with FR, RW, or WE (on average 1.82, 1.68, and 1.67 kg m−3, respectively), whereas the I150 treatment with each of the three water types showed the lowest WP values. Fruit weight and size were the lowest in the full irrigation (I100) with WE, whereas the I150 treatment with RW showed the highest values. There were no significant differences in either total soluble solids (TSS) or acidity values when the irrigation level decreased from 100% to 50% ETc. Compared with both I50 and I100 treatments, reduced values of both TSS and acidity were observed in the I150 treatment when ECw decreased from 3.94 to 0.18 dS m−1,. Fruit moisture content decreased with the application of saline irrigation water (i.e., RW or WE). Total sugar and non-reducing sugar contents in fruits were found to be decreased in the combination of RW and I150, whereas the 50% ETc irrigation level caused an increment in both parameters. These results suggest that the application of deficit irrigation to date palm trees grown in arid regions, either with FR or without it, can sufficiently maximize WP and improve the quality of fruits but negatively affects yield, especially when saline water is applied. The use of saline water for irrigation may negatively affect plants because of salt accumulation in the soil in the long run. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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17 pages, 1124 KiB  
Article
Recycled Wastewater and Reverse Osmosis Brine Use for Halophytes Irrigation: Differences in Physiological, Nutritional and Hormonal Responses of Crithmum maritimum and Atriplex halimus Plants
by María José Gómez-Bellot, Beatriz Lorente, María Fernanda Ortuño, Sonia Medina, Ángel Gil-Izquierdo, Sebastián Bañón and María Jesús Sánchez-Blanco
Agronomy 2021, 11(4), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11040627 - 26 Mar 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2488
Abstract
Halophytes are capable of coping with excessive NaCl in their tissues, although some species may differ in their degree of salt tolerance. In addition, it is not clear whether they can tolerate other confounding factors and impurities associated with non-conventional waters. The experiment [...] Read more.
Halophytes are capable of coping with excessive NaCl in their tissues, although some species may differ in their degree of salt tolerance. In addition, it is not clear whether they can tolerate other confounding factors and impurities associated with non-conventional waters. The experiment was performed in a greenhouse with Crithmum maritimum and Atriplex halimus plants, growing on soil and irrigated with two different water types: reclaimed wastewater (RWW) (EC: 0.8–1.2 dS m−1) and reverse osmosis brine (ROB) (EC: 4.7–7.9 dS m−1). Both species showed different physiological and nutritional responses, when they were irrigated with ROB. Atriplex plants reduced leaf water potential and maintained leaf turgor as consequence of an osmotic adjustment process. Atriplex showed higher intrinsic water use efficiency than Crithmum, regardless of the type of water used. In Crithmum, the water status and photosynthetic efficiency were similar in both treatments. Crithmum presented a higher leaf accumulation of B and Ca ions, while Atriplex a higher amount of K, Mg, Na and Zn. Crithmum plants irrigated with ROB presented higher concentrations of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid and trans-zeatin-glucoside, whereas abscisic acid concentration was lower. Atriplex showed a lower concentration of trans-zeatin-riboside and scopoletin. The characteristics associated to water irrigation did not influence negatively the development of any of these species, which confirms the use of brine as an alternative to irrigate them with conventional waters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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14 pages, 3561 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Effects of Irrigation Water Salinity on Two Ornamental Crops by Remote Spectral Imaging
by Xinyang Yu, Younggu Her, Anjin Chang, Jung-Hun Song, E. Vanessa Campoverde and Bruce Schaffer
Agronomy 2021, 11(2), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020375 - 20 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2526
Abstract
Salinity is one of the most common and critical environmental factors that limit plant growth and reduce crop yield. The aquifers, the primary sources of irrigation water, of south Florida are shallow and highly permeable, which makes agriculture vulnerable to projected sea level [...] Read more.
Salinity is one of the most common and critical environmental factors that limit plant growth and reduce crop yield. The aquifers, the primary sources of irrigation water, of south Florida are shallow and highly permeable, which makes agriculture vulnerable to projected sea level rise and saltwater intrusion. This study evaluated the growth responses of two ornamental nursery crops to the different salinity levels of irrigation water to help develop saltwater intrusion mitigation plans for the improved sustainability of the horticultural industry in south Florida. Two nursery crops, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Mandevilla splendens, were treated with irrigation water that had seven different salinity levels from 0.5 (control) to 10.0 dS/m in the experiment. Crop height was measured weekly, and growth was monitored daily using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values derived from multispectral images collected using affordable sensors. The results show that the growth of H. rosa-sinensis and M.splendens was significantly inhibited when the salinity concentrations of irrigation water increased to 7.0 and 4.0 dS/m, for each crop, respectively. No significant differences were found between the NDVI values and plant growth variables of both H. rosa-sinensis and M.splendens treated with the different irrigation water salinity levels less than 2.0 dS/m. This study identified the salinity levels that could reduce the growth of the two nursery crops and demonstrated that the current level of irrigation water salinity (0.5 dS/m) would not have significant adverse effects on the growth of these crops in south Florida. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Effect of Saline Water and Recycled Wastewater on Horticultural Plants)
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