Aerospace

25 pages, 1432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agent-Based Distributed Planning and Coordination for Resilient Airport Surface Movement Operations

by Konstantine Fines, Alexei Sharpanskykh and Matthieu Vert

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040048 - 19 Apr 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4755

Airport surface movement operations are complex processes with many types of adverse events which require resilient, safe, and efficient responses. One regularly occurring adverse event is that of runway reconfiguration. Agent-based distributed planning and coordination has shown promising results in controlling operations in [...] Read more.

Airport surface movement operations are complex processes with many types of adverse events which require resilient, safe, and efficient responses. One regularly occurring adverse event is that of runway reconfiguration. Agent-based distributed planning and coordination has shown promising results in controlling operations in complex systems, especially during disturbances. In contrast to the centralised approaches, distributed planning is performed by several agents, which coordinate plans with each other. This research evaluates the contribution of agent-based distributed planning and coordination to the resilience of airport surface movement operations when runway reconfigurations occur. An autonomous Multi-Agent System (MAS) model was created based on the layout and airport surface movement operations of Schiphol Airport in the Netherlands. Within the MAS model, three distributed planning and coordination mechanisms were incorporated, based on the Conflict-Based Search (CBS) Multi-Agent Path Finding (MAPF) algorithm and adaptive highways. MAS simulations were run based on eight days of real-world operational data from Schiphol Airport and the results of the autonomous MAS simulations were compared to the performance of the real-world human operated system. The MAS results show that the distributed planning and coordination mechanisms were effective in contributing to the resilient behaviour of the airport surface movement operations, closely following the real-world behaviour, and sometimes even surpassing it. In particular, the mechanisms were found to contribute to more resilient behaviour than the real-world when considering the taxi time after runway reconfiguration events. Finally, the highway included distributed planning and coordination mechanisms contributed to the most resilient behaviour of the airport surface movement operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Multiagent Systems and Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Aviation (Volume II))

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22 pages, 14016 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory Optimization and Analytic Solutions for High-Speed Dynamic Soaring

by Gottfried Sachs and Benedikt Grüter

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040047 - 17 Apr 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4166

Abstract

Dynamic soaring is a non-powered flight mode that enables extremely high speeds by extracting energy from thin shear wind layers. Trajectory optimization is applied to construct solutions of the maximum speed achievable with dynamic soaring and to determine characteristic properties of that flight [...] Read more.

Dynamic soaring is a non-powered flight mode that enables extremely high speeds by extracting energy from thin shear wind layers. Trajectory optimization is applied to construct solutions of the maximum speed achievable with dynamic soaring and to determine characteristic properties of that flight mode, using appropriate models of the vehicle dynamics and the shear wind layer. Furthermore, an energy-based flight mechanics model of high-speed dynamic soaring is developed, with reference made to trajectory optimization. With this model, analytic solutions for high-speed dynamic soaring are derived. The key factors for the maximum speed performance are identified and their effects are determined. Furthermore, analytic solutions for other, non-performance quantities of significance for high-speed dynamic soaring are derived. The analytic solutions virtually agree with the results achieved with the trajectory optimization using the vehicle dynamics model. This is considered a validation of the energy-based model yielding analytic solutions. The analytical solutions are also valid for the high subsonic Mach number region involving significant compressibility effects. This is of importance for future developments in high-speed dynamic soaring, as modern gliders are now capable of reaching that Mach number region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Trajectory Design and Optimization)

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18 pages, 6923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Icing Penalties of an S826 Airfoil at Low Reynolds Numbers

by Richard Hann, R. Jason Hearst, Lars Roar Sætran and Tania Bracchi

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040046 - 16 Apr 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5787

Abstract

Most icing research focuses on the high Reynolds number regime and manned aviation. Information on icing at low Reynolds numbers, as it is encountered by wind turbines and unmanned aerial vehicles, is less available, and few experimental datasets exist that can be used [...] Read more.

Most icing research focuses on the high Reynolds number regime and manned aviation. Information on icing at low Reynolds numbers, as it is encountered by wind turbines and unmanned aerial vehicles, is less available, and few experimental datasets exist that can be used for validation of numerical tools. This study investigated the aerodynamic performance degradation on an S826 airfoil with 3D-printed ice shapes at Reynolds numbers Re = 2 × 10⁵, 4 × 10⁵, and 6 × 10⁵. Three ice geometries were obtained from icing wind tunnel experiments, and an additional three geometries were generated with LEWICE. Experimental measurements of lift, drag, and pressure on the clean and iced airfoils have been conducted in the low-speed wind tunnel at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. The results showed that the icing performance penalty correlated to the complexity of the ice geometry. The experimental data were compared to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations with the RANS solver FENSAP. Simulations were performed with two turbulence models (Spalart Allmaras and Menter’s k-ω SST). The simulation data showed good fidelity for the clean and streamlined icing cases but had limitations for complex ice shapes and stall. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft)

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19 pages, 3630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aeroelastic Wing Planform Design Optimization of a Flutter UAV Demonstrator

by Andreas Hermanutz and Mirko Hornung

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040045 - 15 Apr 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6064

Abstract

In this work, a study to design a highly flexible flutter demonstrator for the development and testing of active flutter suppression is presented. Based on the UAV mission, a bi-objective design optimization problem can be formulated. The aeroelastic UAV characteristic and imposed constraints, [...] Read more.

In this work, a study to design a highly flexible flutter demonstrator for the development and testing of active flutter suppression is presented. Based on the UAV mission, a bi-objective design optimization problem can be formulated. The aeroelastic UAV characteristic and imposed constraints, defined by operational aspects and the structural integrity are described by surrogate modeling. Within the framework of the multi-criteria optimization, an approach to construct the equally spaced Pareto frontier with a new approach for non-convex problems is presented. An efficient Pareto configuration to meet a natural low speed and low frequency is identified and its main influencing design features are analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity, Volume II)

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69 pages, 3474 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Concepts, Benefits, and Challenges for Future Electrical Propulsion-Based Aircraft

by Smruti Sahoo, Xin Zhao and Konstantinos Kyprianidis

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040044 - 13 Apr 2020

Cited by 139 | Viewed by 35443

Abstract

Electrification of the propulsion system has opened the door to a new paradigm of propulsion system configurations and novel aircraft designs, which was never envisioned before. Despite lofty promises, the concept must overcome the design and sizing challenges to make it realizable. A [...] Read more.

Electrification of the propulsion system has opened the door to a new paradigm of propulsion system configurations and novel aircraft designs, which was never envisioned before. Despite lofty promises, the concept must overcome the design and sizing challenges to make it realizable. A suitable modeling framework is desired in order to explore the design space at the conceptual level. A greater investment in enabling technologies, and infrastructural developments, is expected to facilitate its successful application in the market. In this review paper, several scholarly articles were surveyed to get an insight into the current landscape of research endeavors and the formulated derivations related to electric aircraft developments. The barriers and the needed future technological development paths are discussed. The paper also includes detailed assessments of the implications and other needs pertaining to future technology, regulation, certification, and infrastructure developments, in order to make the next generation electric aircraft operation commercially worthy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Jet Engine Technology)

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38 pages, 9165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nytrox as “Drop-in” Replacement for Gaseous Oxygen in SmallSat Hybrid Propulsion Systems

by Stephen A. Whitmore

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040043 - 12 Apr 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7812

Abstract

A medical grade nitrous oxide (N₂O) and gaseous oxygen (GOX) “Nytrox” blend is investigated as a volumetrically-efficient replacement for GOX in SmallSat-scale hybrid propulsion systems. Combined with 3-D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), the propellants represent a significantly safer, but superior [...] Read more.

A medical grade nitrous oxide (N₂O) and gaseous oxygen (GOX) “Nytrox” blend is investigated as a volumetrically-efficient replacement for GOX in SmallSat-scale hybrid propulsion systems. Combined with 3-D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), the propellants represent a significantly safer, but superior performing, alternative to environmentally-unsustainable spacecraft propellants like hydrazine. In a manner analogous to the creation of soda-water using dissolved carbon dioxide, Nytrox is created by bubbling GOX under pressure into N₂O until the solution reaches saturation. Oxygen in the ullage dilutes N₂O vapor and increases the required decomposition energy barrier by several orders of magnitude. Thus, risks associated with inadvertent thermal or catalytic N₂O decomposition are virtually eliminated. Preliminary results of a test-and-evaluation campaign are reported. A small spacecraft thruster is first tested using gaseous oxygen and 3-D printed ABS as the baseline propellants. Tests were then repeated using Nytrox as a “drop-in” replacement for GOX. Parameters compared include ignition reliability, latency, initiation energy, thrust coefficient, characteristic velocity, specific impulse, combustion efficiency, and fuel regression rate. Tests demonstrate Nytrox as an effective replacement for GOX, exhibiting a slightly reduced specific impulse, but with significantly higher volumetric efficiency. Vacuum specific impulse exceeding 300 s is reported. Future research topics are recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hybrid Rocket Technology and Related Analysis Methodologies)

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22 pages, 709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Levels of Fidelity on Steady Aerodynamic and Static Aeroelastic Computations

by Adrien Crovato, Hugo S. Almeida, Gareth Vio, Gustavo H. Silva, Alex P. Prado, Carlos Breviglieri, Huseyin Guner, Pedro H. Cabral, Romain Boman, Vincent E. Terrapon and Grigorios Dimitriadis

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040042 - 11 Apr 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5267

Abstract

Static aeroelastic deformations are nowadays considered as early as in the preliminary aircraft design stage, where low-fidelity linear aerodynamic modeling is favored because of its low computational cost. However, transonic flows are essentially nonlinear. The present work aims at assessing the impact of [...] Read more.

Static aeroelastic deformations are nowadays considered as early as in the preliminary aircraft design stage, where low-fidelity linear aerodynamic modeling is favored because of its low computational cost. However, transonic flows are essentially nonlinear. The present work aims at assessing the impact of the aerodynamic level of fidelity used in preliminary aircraft design. Several fluid models ranging from the linear potential to the Navier–Stokes formulations were used to solve transonic flows for steady rigid aerodynamic and static aeroelastic computations on two benchmark wings: the Onera M6 and a generic airliner wing. The lift and moment loading distributions, as well as the bending and twisting deformations predicted by the different models, were examined, along with the computational costs of the various solutions. The results illustrate that a nonlinear method is required to reliably perform steady aerodynamic computations on rigid wings. For such computations, the best tradeoff between accuracy and computational cost is achieved by the full potential formulation. On the other hand, static aeroelastic computations are usually performed on optimized wings for which transonic effects are weak. In such cases, linear potential methods were found to yield sufficiently reliable results. If the linear method of choice is the doublet lattice approach, it must be corrected using a nonlinear solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity, Volume II)

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10 pages, 3068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Study of Aircraft Accidents Causes by Computer Simulations

by Paweł Szczepaniak, Grzegorz Jastrzębski, Krzysztof Sibilski and Andrzej Bartosiewicz

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040041 - 10 Apr 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5338

Abstract

Defects in an aircraft can be caused by design flaw, manufacturer flaw or wear and tear from use. Although inspections are performed on the airplane before and after flights, accidents still result from faulty equipment and malfunctioning components. Determining the causes of an [...] Read more.

Defects in an aircraft can be caused by design flaw, manufacturer flaw or wear and tear from use. Although inspections are performed on the airplane before and after flights, accidents still result from faulty equipment and malfunctioning components. Determining the causes of an aircraft accident is an outcome of a very laborious and often very long investigation process. According to the statistics, currently the human factor has the biggest share within the causal groups. Along with the development of aviation technology came a decline in the number of accidents caused by failures or malfunctions, though such still happen, especially considering aging aircraft. Discovering causes and factors behind an aircraft accident is of crucial significance from the perspective of improving aircraft operational safety. Effective prevention is the basic measure of raising the aircraft reliability level, and the safety-related guidelines must be developed based on verified facts, reliable analysis and logical conclusions. This article presents simulation tests carried out by finite element method and constitutive laboratory tests leading to the explanation of the direct cause of a military aircraft accident. Computer-based simulation methods are particularly useful when it comes to analysing the kinematics of mechanisms and potential stress concentration points. Using computer models enables analysing an individual element failure process, identifying their sequence and locating their primary failure source. Full article

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3 pages, 166 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Verification Approaches for Nano- and Micro-Satellites

by Dario Modenini and Paolo Tortora

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040040 - 08 Apr 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3426

Abstract

There is growing interest for the development of light, small, high-performance spacecraft (S/C) platforms for a wide range of missions [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Verification Approaches for Nano- and Micro-Satellites)

14 pages, 4333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computer-Assisted Aircraft Anti-Icing Fluids Endurance Time Determination

by David Gagnon, Jean-Denis Brassard, Hassan Ezzaidi and Christophe Volat

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040039 - 08 Apr 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3802

Abstract

Deicing and anti-icing the aircraft using proper chemical fluids, prior takeoff, are mandatory. A thin layer of ice or snow can compromise the safety, causing lift loss and drag increase. Commercialized deicing and anti-icing fluids all pass a qualification process which is described [...] Read more.

Deicing and anti-icing the aircraft using proper chemical fluids, prior takeoff, are mandatory. A thin layer of ice or snow can compromise the safety, causing lift loss and drag increase. Commercialized deicing and anti-icing fluids all pass a qualification process which is described in Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE) documents. Most of them are endurance time tests under freezing and frozen contaminants, under simulated and natural conditions. They all have in common that the endurance times have to be determined by visual inspection. When a certain proportion of the test plate is covered with contaminants, the endurance time test is called. In the goal of minimizing human error resulting from visual inspection and helping in the interpretation of fluid failure, help-decision computer-assisted algorithms have been developed and tested under different conditions. The algorithms are based on common image processing techniques. The algorithms have been tested under three different icing conditions, water spray endurance test, indoor snow test and light freezing rain tests, and were compared to the times determined by three experimented technicians. A total of 14 tests have been compared. From them, 11 gave a result lower than 5% of the results given by the technicians. In conclusion, the computer-assisted algorithms developed are efficient enough to support the technicians in their failure call. However, further works need to be performed to improve the analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft)

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19 pages, 6785 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Investigation of a CubeSat in Orbit Anomaly through Verification on Ground

by Fabrizio Stesina and Sabrina Corpino

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040038 - 01 Apr 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5203

Abstract

Given the role of Cubesats in the new space economy, a statistically relevant number of CubeSats have flown, and considering the high percentage of failed missions, the investigation of in-orbit anomalies becomes of paramount importance. It is rare to find data about mission [...] Read more.

Given the role of Cubesats in the new space economy, a statistically relevant number of CubeSats have flown, and considering the high percentage of failed missions, the investigation of in-orbit anomalies becomes of paramount importance. It is rare to find data about mission failures, probably because the partial or total absence of telemetry does not encourage any analysis. The lack of data from the spacecraft in orbit can be mitigated through ad-hoc verification campaigns on satellite models when in-orbit anomalies are experienced. This paper shows an effective testing activity conducted on models of the spacecraft to understand the root cause of a severe anomaly that occurred during mission operations. The tests are part of a comprehensive methodology for root causes analysis. The paper aims at sharing the experience built upon a practical case of interest. More importantly, this work has the ambition of fostering the research on key topics of reliability, mission operations and assembly, and integration and verification/test processes, which have shown to be critical. The activity presented in this paper demonstrates that investigating the anomalies can help recover the mission of interest but can also support building a heritage that is still missing for CubeSat missions today. Full article

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2 pages, 169 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Civil and Military Airworthiness: Recent Developments and Challenges

by Kyriakos I. Kourousis

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040037 - 01 Apr 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4713

Abstract

Airworthiness, as a field, encompasses all those technical and non-technical activities required to design, certify, produce, maintain and operate safely an aircraft throughout its lifespan [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Civil and Military Airworthiness: Recent Developments and Challenges)

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18 pages, 59346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast Evaluation of Aircraft Icing Severity Using Machine Learning Based on XGBoost

by Sibo Li, Jingkun Qin, Miao He and Roberto Paoli

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040036 - 31 Mar 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6011

Abstract

Aircraft icing represents a serious hazard in aviation which has caused a number of fatal accidents over the years. In addition, it can lead to substantial increase in drag and weight, thus reducing the aerodynamics performance of the airplane. The process of ice [...] Read more.

Aircraft icing represents a serious hazard in aviation which has caused a number of fatal accidents over the years. In addition, it can lead to substantial increase in drag and weight, thus reducing the aerodynamics performance of the airplane. The process of ice accretion on a solid surface is a complex interaction of aerodynamic and environmental variables. The complex relationship makes machine learning-based methods an attractive alternative to traditional numerical simulation-based approaches. In this study, we introduce a purely data-driven approach to find the complex pattern between different flight conditions and aircraft icing severity prediction. The supervised learning algorithm Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) is applied to establish the prediction framework which makes prediction based on any set of observations. The input flight conditions for the proposed prediction framework are liquid water content, droplet diameter and exposure time. The proposed approach is demonstrated in three cases: maximum ice thickness prediction, icing area prediction and icing severity level evaluation. Performance comparison studies and error analysis are also conducted to verify the effectiveness and performance of the proposed method. Results show that the proposed method has reasonable capability in evaluating aircraft icing severity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft)

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24 pages, 9981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Measurement of Carbon Fibre/Polyether Ether Ketone Thermal Expansion in Low Earth Orbit

by Farhan Abdullah, Kei-ichi Okuyama, Isai Fajardo and Naoya Urakami

Aerospace 2020, 7(4), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7040035 - 26 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4259

Abstract

The low Earth orbit (LEO) environment exposes spacecraft to factors that can degrade the dimensional stability of the structure. Carbon Fibre/Polyether Ether Ketone (CF/PEEK) can limit such degradations. However, there are limited in-orbit data on the performance of CF/PEEK. Usage of small satellite [...] Read more.

The low Earth orbit (LEO) environment exposes spacecraft to factors that can degrade the dimensional stability of the structure. Carbon Fibre/Polyether Ether Ketone (CF/PEEK) can limit such degradations. However, there are limited in-orbit data on the performance of CF/PEEK. Usage of small satellite as material science research platform can address such limitations. This paper discusses the design of a material science experiment termed material mission (MM) onboard Ten-Koh satellite, which allows in situ measurements of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) for CF/PEEK samples in LEO. Results from ground tests before launch demonstrated the feasibility of the MM design. Analysis of in-orbit data indicated that the CTE values exhibit a non-linear temperature dependence, and there was no shift in CTE values after four months. The acquired in-orbit data was consistent with previous ground tests and in-orbit data. The MM experiment provides data to verify the ground test of CF/PEEK performance in LEO. MM also proved the potential of small satellite as a platform for conducting meaningful material science experiments. Full article

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Aerospace, Volume 7, Issue 4 (April 2020) – 14 articles

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