Aerospace

9 pages, 1641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pinned Droplet Size on a Superhydrophobic Surface in Shear Flow

by Mitsugu Hasegawa, Katsuaki Morita, Hirotaka Sakaue and Shigeo Kimura

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030034 - 21 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4386

The recent development of a superhydrophobic surface enhances the droplet shedding under a shear flow. The present study gives insights into the effects of shear flow on a pinned droplet over a superhydrophobic surface. To experimentally simulate the change in the size of [...] Read more.

The recent development of a superhydrophobic surface enhances the droplet shedding under a shear flow. The present study gives insights into the effects of shear flow on a pinned droplet over a superhydrophobic surface. To experimentally simulate the change in the size of a sessile droplet on an aerodynamic surface, the volume of the pinned droplet is expanded by water supplied through a pore. Under a continuous airflow that provides a shear flow over the superhydrophobic surface, the size of a pinned water droplet shed from the surface is experimentally characterized. The air velocity ranges from 8 to 61 m/s, and the size of pinned droplets shed at a given air velocity is measured using an instantaneous snapshot captured with a high-speed camera. It is found that the size of the shedding pinned droplet decreases as air velocity increases. At higher air velocities, shedding pinned droplets are fully immersed in the boundary layer. The present findings give a correlation between critical air velocity and the size of pinned droplets shed from the pore over the superhydrophobic surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft)

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15 pages, 15395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

S-Parameter-Based Defect Localization for Ultrasonic Guided Wave SHM

by Gift Nyikayaramba and Boris Murmann

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030033 - 20 Mar 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5057

Abstract

In this work, an approach for enabling miniaturized, low-voltage hardware for active structural health monitoring (SHM) based on ultrasonic guided waves is investigated. The proposed technique relies on S-parameter measurements instead of time-domain pulsing and thereby trades off longer measurement times with lower [...] Read more.

In this work, an approach for enabling miniaturized, low-voltage hardware for active structural health monitoring (SHM) based on ultrasonic guided waves is investigated. The proposed technique relies on S-parameter measurements instead of time-domain pulsing and thereby trades off longer measurement times with lower actuation voltages for improved compatibility with dense complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) chip integration. To demonstrate the feasibility of this method, we present results showing the successful localization of defects in aluminum and carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) test structures using S-parameter measurements. The S-parameter measurements were made on benchtop vector network analyzers that actuate the piezoelectric transducers at output voltage amplitudes as low as 1.264 V_pp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from IWSHM 2019)

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26 pages, 6127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control of a Supersonic Inlet in Off-Design Conditions with Plasma Actuators and Bleed

by Andrea Ferrero

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030032 - 19 Mar 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6439

Abstract

Supersonic inlets are a key component of present and future air-breathing propulsion systems for high-speed flight. The inlet design is challenging because of several phenomena that must be taken under control: shock waves, boundary layer separation and unsteadiness. Furthermore, the intensity of these [...] Read more.

Supersonic inlets are a key component of present and future air-breathing propulsion systems for high-speed flight. The inlet design is challenging because of several phenomena that must be taken under control: shock waves, boundary layer separation and unsteadiness. Furthermore, the intensity of these phenomena is strongly influenced by the working conditions and so active control systems can be particularly useful in off-design conditions. In this work, a mixed compression supersonic inlet with a double wedge ramp is considered. The flow field was numerically investigated at different values of Mach number. The simulations show that large separations appear at the higher Mach numbers on both the upper and lower walls of the duct. In order to improve the performances of the inlet two different control strategies were investigated: plasma actuators and bleed. Different locations of the plasma actuator are considered in order to also apply this technology to configurations with a diverter which prevents boundary layer ingestion. The potential of the proposed solutions is investigated in terms of total pressure recovery, flow distortion and power consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Control and Optimization Problems in Aerospace Engineering)

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19 pages, 7991 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dynamic Testbed for Nanosatellites Attitude Verification

by Dario Modenini, Anton Bahu, Giacomo Curzi and Andrea Togni

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030031 - 18 Mar 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6792

Abstract

To enable a reliable verification of attitude determination and control systems for nanosatellites, the environment of low Earth orbits with almost disturbance-free rotational dynamics must be simulated. This work describes the design solutions adopted for developing a dynamic nanosatellite attitude simulator testbed at [...] Read more.

To enable a reliable verification of attitude determination and control systems for nanosatellites, the environment of low Earth orbits with almost disturbance-free rotational dynamics must be simulated. This work describes the design solutions adopted for developing a dynamic nanosatellite attitude simulator testbed at the University of Bologna. The facility integrates several subsystems, including: (i) an air-bearing three degree of freedom platform, with automatic balancing system, (ii) a Helmholtz cage for geomagnetic field simulation, (iii) a Sun simulator, and (iv) a metrology vision system for ground-truth attitude generation. Apart from the commercial off-the-shelf Helmholtz cage, the other subsystems required substantial development efforts. The main purpose of this manuscript is to offer some cost-effective solutions for their in-house development, and to show through experimental verification that adequate performances can be achieved. The proposed approach may thus be preferred to the procurement of turn-key solutions, when required by budget constraints. The main outcome of the commissioning phase of the facility are: a residual disturbance torque affecting the air bearing platform of less than 5 × 10⁻⁵ Nm, an attitude determination rms accuracy of the vision system of 10 arcmin, and divergence of the Sun simulator light beam of less than 0.5° in a 35 cm diameter area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Verification Approaches for Nano- and Micro-Satellites)

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16 pages, 1519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aircraft Mode S Transponder Fingerprinting for Intrusion Detection

by Mauro Leonardi and Fabrizio Gerardi

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030030 - 18 Mar 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6588

Abstract

Nowadays, aircraft safety is based on different systems and four of them share the same data-link protocol: Secondary Surveillance Radar, Automatic Dependent Surveillance System, Traffic Collision Avoidance System, and Traffic Information System use the Mode S protocol to send and receive information. This [...] Read more.

Nowadays, aircraft safety is based on different systems and four of them share the same data-link protocol: Secondary Surveillance Radar, Automatic Dependent Surveillance System, Traffic Collision Avoidance System, and Traffic Information System use the Mode S protocol to send and receive information. This protocol does not provide any kind of authentication, making some of these applications vulnerable to cyberattacks. In this paper, an intrusion detection mechanism based on transmitter Radio Frequency (RF) fingerprinting is proposed to distinguish between legitimate messages and fake ones. The proposed transmitter signature is described and an intrusion detection algorithm is developed and evaluated in case of different intrusion configurations, also with the use of real recorded data. The results show that it is possible to detect the presence of fake messages with a high probability of detection and very low probability of false alarm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Applications in Aviation Safety)

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13 pages, 3492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experimental Characterization of an Actuation System for Flow Control of an Internally Blown Coanda Flap

by Peter Wierach, Jan Petersen and Michael Sinapius

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030029 - 17 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3866

Abstract

The focus of the work is on the evaluation, development and integration of a robust actuator system for three-dimensional flow control of a blown Coanda flap to improve the high lift system of commercial aircraft. As part of the research work presented, the [...] Read more.

The focus of the work is on the evaluation, development and integration of a robust actuator system for three-dimensional flow control of a blown Coanda flap to improve the high lift system of commercial aircraft. As part of the research work presented, the system is integrated into a wind tunnel model in order to influence the flow across the entire width of the model. The system developed is based on individual bending transducers that can vary the height of the blowing slot dynamically. The system is divided into 33 segments and is therefore able to implement static and dynamic actuation along the wing-span (3D-actuation). All segments can be controlled independently and thus offer great optimization potential for an effective flow control. Different configurations were developed and evaluated against each other with respect to the demanding requirements (small installation space, frequency range from 5 Hz to 300 Hz, 1 bar pressure, 0.4 mm deflection, 1 m span). The design of the blown flap has been specified in an iterative design process. In the final configuration, all mechanical components are reduced to the bare minimum for weight reduction reasons, in order to meet the dynamic requirements of the wind tunnel model. To characterize the lip segments, a test device has been designed that can be pressurized to generate aerodynamic loads on the lip segments. Finally, 33 lip segments were integrated into a wind tunnel model and tested intensively as part of a measurement campaign. The first aerodynamic results show an increase in lift of up to ∆C_a = 0.57. These aerodynamic gains are achieved at amplitudes that do not require the lip segments to completely close or open the blowing slot, which shows the advantage of the current lip design that enables activation with independently controlled stationary and unsteady components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeronautical Systems for Flow Control)

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25 pages, 13661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interface Failure of Heated GLARE^TM Fiber–Metal Laminates under Bird Strike

by Md.Zahid Hasan

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030028 - 17 Mar 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3977

Abstract

Many high-strength composite materials have been developed for aircraft structures. GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum (GLARE) is one of the high-performance composites. The review of articles, however, yielded no study on the impact damage of heated GLARE laminates. This study, therefore, aimed at developing [...] Read more.

Many high-strength composite materials have been developed for aircraft structures. GLAss fiber REinforced aluminum (GLARE) is one of the high-performance composites. The review of articles, however, yielded no study on the impact damage of heated GLARE laminates. This study, therefore, aimed at developing a numerical model that can delineate the continuum damage of GLARE 5A-3/2-0.3 laminates at elevated temperatures. In the first stage, the inter-laminar interface failure of heated GLARE laminate had been investigated at room temperature and 80 °C. The numerical analysis employed a three-dimensional GLARE 5A-3/2-0.3 model that accommodated volumetric cohesive interfaces between mating material layers. Lagrangian smoothed particles populated the projectile. The model considered the degradation of tensile and shear modulus of glass fiber reinforced epoxy (GF/EP) at 80 °C, while incorporated temperature-dependent critical strain energy release rate of cohesive interfaces. When coupled with the material particulars, an 82 m/s bird impact at room temperature exhibited delamination first in the GF/EP 90°/0° interface farthest from the impacted side. Keeping the impact velocity, interface failure propagated at a slower rate at 80 °C than that at room temperature, which was in agreement with the impact damage determined in the experiments. The outcomes of this study will help optimize a GLARE laminate based on the anti-icing temperature of aircraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crashworthiness Design for Aviation Safety)

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13 pages, 3769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calibration of a Load Measurement System for an Unmanned Aircraft Composite Wing Based on Fibre Bragg Gratings and Electrical Strain Gauges

by Łukasz Święch

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030027 - 13 Mar 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7530

Abstract

This paper presents the issues concerning calibration of a measurement system for monitoring the cross-sectional forces and moments of an unmanned aircraft’s wing. A composite cantilever wing with built-in measurement systems based on electrical resistance and Fibre Bragg Grating strain gauges has been [...] Read more.

This paper presents the issues concerning calibration of a measurement system for monitoring the cross-sectional forces and moments of an unmanned aircraft’s wing. A composite cantilever wing with built-in measurement systems based on electrical resistance and Fibre Bragg Grating strain gauges has been made for the purpose of the study. Measurement systems placed along the span of the wing consist of strain gauges arranged in a manner that allows the monitoring of shear force, bending and twisting moments. The calibration process was described in terms of both experimental tests and mathematical formalism. The calibration results were compared for the complete system, consisting of three sensor units, and for various combinations of separated measuring points. For each case, a reading inaccuracy analysis was carried out and conclusions, including recommendations for the design of this kind of measurement system, were formulated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Fiber Optical Sensors for Aerospace Applications)

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20 pages, 321 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Bird Strike Challenge

by Isabel C. Metz, Joost Ellerbroek, Thorsten Mühlhausen, Dirk Kügler and Jacco M. Hoekstra

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030026 - 13 Mar 2020

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 13266

Abstract

Collisions between birds and aircraft pose a severe threat to aviation and avian safety. To understand and prevent these bird strikes, knowledge about the factors leading to these bird strikes is vital. However, even though it is a global issue, data availability strongly [...] Read more.

Collisions between birds and aircraft pose a severe threat to aviation and avian safety. To understand and prevent these bird strikes, knowledge about the factors leading to these bird strikes is vital. However, even though it is a global issue, data availability strongly varies and is difficult to put into a global picture. This paper aims to close this gap by providing an in-depth review of studies and statistics to obtain a concise overview of the bird strike problem in commercial aviation on an international level. The paper illustrates the factors contributing to the occurrence and the potential consequences in terms of effect on flight and damage. This is followed by a presentation of the risk-reducing measures currently in place as well as their limitations. The paper closes with an insight into current research investigating novel methods to prevent bird strikes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)

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24 pages, 3379 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Design for Qualification Framework for the Development of Additive Manufacturing Components—A Case Study from the Space Industry

by Christo Dordlofva

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030025 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6388

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing (AM) provides several benefits for aerospace companies in terms of efficient and innovative product development. However, due to the general lack of AM process understanding, engineers face many uncertainties related to product qualification during the design of AM components. The aim [...] Read more.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) provides several benefits for aerospace companies in terms of efficient and innovative product development. However, due to the general lack of AM process understanding, engineers face many uncertainties related to product qualification during the design of AM components. The aim of this paper is to further the understanding of how to cope with the need to develop process understanding, while at the same time designing products that can be qualified. A qualitative action research study has been performed, using the development of an AM rocket engine turbine demonstrator as a case study. The results show that the qualification approach should be developed for the specific application, dependent on the AM knowledge within the organization. AM knowledge is not only linked to the AM process but to the complete AM process chain. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the manufacturing chain during design and to develop necessary knowledge concurrently with the product in order to define suitable requirements. The paper proposes a Design for Qualification framework, supported by six design tactics. The framework encourages proactive consideration for qualification and the capabilities of the AM process chain, as well as the continuous development of AM knowledge during product development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing for Aerospace and Defence)

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18 pages, 3026 KiB

Open AccessConcept Paper

U-Space Concept of Operations: A Key Enabler for Opening Airspace to Emerging Low-Altitude Operations

by Cristina Barrado, Mario Boyero, Luigi Brucculeri, Giancarlo Ferrara, Andrew Hately, Peter Hullah, David Martin-Marrero, Enric Pastor, Anthony Peter Rushton and Andreas Volkert

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030024 - 07 Mar 2020

Cited by 108 | Viewed by 12321

Abstract

Opening the sky to new classes of airspace user is a political and economic imperative for the European Union. Drone industries have a significant potential for economical growth according to the latest estimations. To enable this growth safely and efficiently, the CORUS project [...] Read more.

Opening the sky to new classes of airspace user is a political and economic imperative for the European Union. Drone industries have a significant potential for economical growth according to the latest estimations. To enable this growth safely and efficiently, the CORUS project has developed a concept of operations for drones flying in Europe in very low-level airspace, which they have to share that space with manned aviation, and quite soon with urban air mobility aircraft as well. U-space services and the development of smart, automated, interoperable, and sustainable traffic management solutions are presented as the key enabler for achieving this high level of integration. In this paper, we present the U-space concept of operations (ConOps), produced around three new types of airspace volume, called X, Y, and Z, and the relevant U-space services that will need to be supplied in each of these. The paper also describes the reference high-level U-space architecture using the European air traffic management architecture methodology. Finally, the paper proposes the basis for the aircraft separation standards applicable by each volume, to be used by the conflict detection and resolution services of U-space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unmanned Aircraft Traffic Management)

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22 pages, 11555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Validation of a New Morphing Camber System by Testing in the Price—Païdoussis Subsonic Wind Tunnel

by David Communier, Ruxandra Mihaela Botez and Tony Wong

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030023 - 07 Mar 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4961

Abstract

This paper presents the design and wind tunnel testing of a morphing camber system and an estimation of performances on an unmanned aerial vehicle. The morphing camber system is a combination of two subsystems: the morphing trailing edge and the morphing leading edge. [...] Read more.

This paper presents the design and wind tunnel testing of a morphing camber system and an estimation of performances on an unmanned aerial vehicle. The morphing camber system is a combination of two subsystems: the morphing trailing edge and the morphing leading edge. Results of the present study show that the aerodynamics effects of the two subsystems are combined, without interfering with each other on the wing. The morphing camber system acts only on the lift coefficient at a 0° angle of attack when morphing the trailing edge, and only on the stall angle when morphing the leading edge. The behavior of the aerodynamics performances from the MTE and the MLE should allow individual control of the morphing camber trailing and leading edges. The estimation of the performances of the morphing camber on an unmanned aerial vehicle indicates that the morphing of the camber allows a drag reduction. This result is due to the smaller angle of attack needed for an unmanned aerial vehicle equipped with the morphing camber system than an unmanned aerial vehicle equipped with classical aileron. In the case study, the morphing camber system was found to allow a reduction of the drag when the lift coefficient was higher than 0.48. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Analysis of Wind-Tunnel Models and Fluidic Measurements)

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4 pages, 1291 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Aerospace Best Paper Awards 2018

by Aerospace Editorial Office

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030022 - 06 Mar 2020

Viewed by 3570

Abstract

Aerospace has launched annual awards to recognize outstanding papers published in the journal [...] Full article

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22 pages, 3192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Propeller Selection by Means of Pareto-Optimal Sets Applied to Flight Performance

by Svatomir Slavik, Jan Klesa and Jiri Brabec

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030021 - 05 Mar 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5987

Abstract

Selection process of the propeller for short take-off and landing (STOL) category aircraft is described. The aim is to achieve the highest possible performance with fixed propeller, i.e., high maximal horizontal and cruise speed, short take-off and high rate of climb. These requirements [...] Read more.

Selection process of the propeller for short take-off and landing (STOL) category aircraft is described. The aim is to achieve the highest possible performance with fixed propeller, i.e., high maximal horizontal and cruise speed, short take-off and high rate of climb. These requirements are contradictory and so Pareto sets were used in order to find the optimal propeller. The method is applied to a family of geometrically similar propellers that are suitable for 73.5 kW (100 hp) piston engine designed for ultralight category aircraft with maximal take-off weight of 472.5 kg. The propellers have from two to eight blades, blade angle settings from 15° to 40° and diameter from 1.1 m to 2.65 m. Pareto frontier is designed for each pair of flight conditions, and the optimal propeller is selected according to these results. For comparison, the optimal propeller selection from the propeller family by means of a standard single-optimal process based on the speed power coefficient c_s is also used. Use of Pareto sets leads to considerable performance increase for the set of contradictory requirements. Therefore, high performance for a low price for the given aircraft can be achieved. The described method can be used for propeller optimization in similar cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 9th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation & Space)

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13 pages, 3199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Prognosis of Propagating Faults in Flight Control Actuators for Helicopters

by Andrea Nesci, Andrea De Martin, Giovanni Jacazio and Massimo Sorli

Aerospace 2020, 7(3), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace7030020 - 26 Feb 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5077

Abstract

Recent trend in the aeronautic industry is to introduce a novel prognostic solution for critical systems in the attempt to increase vehicle availability, reduce costs, and optimize the maintenance policy. Despite this, there is a general lack of literature about prognostics for hydraulic [...] Read more.

Recent trend in the aeronautic industry is to introduce a novel prognostic solution for critical systems in the attempt to increase vehicle availability, reduce costs, and optimize the maintenance policy. Despite this, there is a general lack of literature about prognostics for hydraulic flight control systems, especially looking at helicopter applications. The present research was focused on a preliminary study for an integrated framework of fault detection and failure prognosis tailored for one of the most common architectures for flight control actuation. Starting from a high-fidelity dynamic model of the system, two different faults were studied and described within a dedicated simulation environment: the opening of a crack in the coils of the centering springs of the actuator and the wear of the inner seals. Both failure modes were analyzed through established models available in the literature and their evolution simulated within the model of the actuator. Hence, an in-depth feature selection process was pursued aimed at the definition of signals suitable for both diagnosis and prognosis. Results were then reported through an accuracy-sensitivity plane and used to define a prognostic routine based on particle filtering techniques. The more significant contribution of the present research was that no additional sensors are needed so that the prognostic system can be potentially implemented for in-service platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fault Detection and Prognostics in Aerospace Engineering)

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