Editorial

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3 pages, 150 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Soil Erosion and Land Degradation

by Thomas Scholten and Steffen Seitz

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3040068 - 22 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4094

Abstract

Land degradation by soil erosion is still one of the most severe environmental issues of our time [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

Research

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14 pages, 5822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Erosion and Land Degradation on Trail Systems in Mountainous Areas: Two Case Studies from South-East Brazil

by Luana Rangel, Maria do Carmo Jorge, Antonio Guerra and Michael Fullen

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(3), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3030056 - 25 Aug 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5036

Abstract

This paper addresses the role of soil erosion and mass movements on mountainous trails due to human trampling on steep slopes. This is the case of several trails situated on forested areas in South-East Brazil, even those located in protected areas. Two methods [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the role of soil erosion and mass movements on mountainous trails due to human trampling on steep slopes. This is the case of several trails situated on forested areas in South-East Brazil, even those located in protected areas. Two methods were used to achieve the research objectives. Firstly, analyses of microtopography using erosion bridges, which was monitored four times on Caixa D’Aço natural pool trails in Serra da Bocaina National Park. Secondly, disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were collected at 0–10 cm depth at four sites on Água Branca trail in Serra do Mar State Park. Using this methodology, we assessed soil degradation in two different humid tropical environments. Generally, trampling combined with deficient trail management, play important roles in degrading soils in both areas. Bioengineering techniques should be used to recuperate these trails, which are used by tourists and local residents. We hope this research work may contribute towards improved management in Brazilian protected areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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28 pages, 11032 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Soil Compaction Impacts of Tramlines Into Soil Erosion Modelling: A Field-Scale Approach

by Philipp Saggau, Michael Kuhwald and Rainer Duttmann

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3030051 - 09 Aug 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5126

Abstract

Soil erosion by water is one of the main soil degradation processes worldwide, which leads to declines in natural soil fertility and productivity especially on arable land. Despite advances in soil erosion modelling, the effects of compacted tramlines are usually not considered. However, [...] Read more.

Soil erosion by water is one of the main soil degradation processes worldwide, which leads to declines in natural soil fertility and productivity especially on arable land. Despite advances in soil erosion modelling, the effects of compacted tramlines are usually not considered. However, tramlines noticeably contribute to the amount of soil eroded inside a field. To quantify these effects we incorporated high-resolution spatial tramline data into modelling. For simulation, the process-based soil erosion model EROSION3D has been applied on different fields for a single rainfall event. To find a reasonable balance between computing time and prediction quality, different grid cell sizes (5, 1, and 0.5 m) were used and modelling results were compared against measured soil loss. We found that (i) grid-based models like E3D are able to integrate tramlines, (ii) the share of measured erosion between tramline and cultivated areas fits well with measurements for resolution ≤1 m, (iii) tramline erosion showed a high dependency to the slope angle and (iv) soil loss and runoff are generated quicker within tramlines during the event. The results indicate that the integration of tramlines in soil erosion modelling improves the spatial prediction accuracy, and therefore, can be important for soil conservation planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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27 pages, 16129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Runoff-Formation and Soil Erosion after Pumice Excavation at Forested Andosol-Sites in SW-Germany Using WEPP

by Julian J. Zemke, Joshua Pöhler and Stephan Stegmann

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(3), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3030048 - 31 Jul 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4098

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of pumice excavation on runoff formation and soil erosion processes in a forested catchment in SW-Germany. The underlying questions are, if (a) backfilled soils have different properties concerning runoff generation and erodibility and if (b) clear-cutting prior to [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of pumice excavation on runoff formation and soil erosion processes in a forested catchment in SW-Germany. The underlying questions are, if (a) backfilled soils have different properties concerning runoff generation and erodibility and if (b) clear-cutting prior to excavation triggers runoff and erosion. Four adjacent sub-areas were observed, which represented different pre- and post-excavation-stages. The basis of the investigation was a comprehensive field sampling that delivered the data for physical erosion modeling using the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP). Modeling took place for standardized conditions (uniform slope geometry and/or uniform land management) and for actual slope geometry and land management. The results show that backfilled soils exhibited 53% increase of annual runoff and 70% increase of annual soil loss under standardized conditions. Storm runoff was increased by 6%, while storm soil loss was reduced by 9%. Land management changes also triggered shifts in annual runoff and soil erosion: Clear-cut (+1.796% runoff, +4.205% soil loss) and bare (+5.958% runoff, +21.055% soil loss) surfaces showed the most distinct changes when compared to undisturbed forest. While reforestation largely diminished post-excavation runoff and soil erosion, the standardized results statistically prove that soil erodibility and runoff generation remain increased after backfilling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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15 pages, 4114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Erosion Spatial Prediction using Digital Soil Mapping and RUSLE methods for Big Sioux River Watershed

by Ruhollah Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi, Arun Bawa, Sandeep Kumar, Mojtaba Zeraatpisheh, Alireza Amirian-Chakan and Ali Akbarzadeh

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3030043 - 08 Jul 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5540

Abstract

A recent conversion of the grasslands to cropland degrading the soil quality (SQ), and impacting the soil erosion and crop productivity in the West Corn Belt (WCB) of the USA. The current study was conducted to estimate the spatial distribution of soil erosion [...] Read more.

A recent conversion of the grasslands to cropland degrading the soil quality (SQ), and impacting the soil erosion and crop productivity in the West Corn Belt (WCB) of the USA. The current study was conducted to estimate the spatial distribution of soil erosion at Big Sioux River (BSR) watershed scale using the Geographical Information System (GIS)-enabled Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Spatial data such as weather, a digital elevation model (DEM), land use maps and soils were used for assessment of soil erosion was downloaded from the easily available online sources. Data showed that about 7% of grassland acreage reduced from 2008 (24%) to 2015 (17%), whereas, about 7.4% of cropland acreage increased from 2008 (64.6%) to 2015 (72%) in the BSR watershed. This grassland conversion to cropland increased the soil erosion (estimated using the RUSLE model) from 12.2 T ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2008 to 14.8 T ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2015. The present study concludes that grassland conversion to cropland in the BSR watershed increased the soil erosion, therefore, management practices essential to be applied to reduce the erosion risk and various other ecosystem services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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29 pages, 468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Erosion Induced Heterogeneity of Soil Organic Matter in Catenae from the Baltic Sea Catchment

by Gerald Jandl, Christel Baum, Goswin Heckrath, Mogens H. Greve, Arno Kanal, Ülo Mander, Barbara Maliszewska-Kordybach, Jacek Niedzwiecki, Kai-Uwe Eckhardt and Peter Leinweber

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3020042 - 19 Jun 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5032

Abstract

Soil organic matter (SOM) is unevenly distributed in arable fields in undulated landscapes, but the chemical composition resulting from their turnover, transport and deposition processes is insufficiently known. Therefore, we aimed at disclosing the molecular-chemical composition of SOM in four different catenae at [...] Read more.

Soil organic matter (SOM) is unevenly distributed in arable fields in undulated landscapes, but the chemical composition resulting from their turnover, transport and deposition processes is insufficiently known. Therefore, we aimed at disclosing the molecular-chemical composition of SOM in four different catenae at shoulderslope, backslope and footslope positions in arable fields in the Baltic Sea catchment, Europe. The backslope positions always had the lowest organic C-contents (C_org) (1.6…11.8 g·kg⁻¹) and C-stocks (3.8…8.5 kg·m⁻²) compared to the shoulderslopes and footslopes (1.7…17.7 g·C_org·kg⁻¹, 5.4…15 kg·C_org·m⁻²). In the SOM-poor backslope positions, the organic matter was characterized by relatively high proportions of carbohydrates, phenols + lignin monomers, alkylaromatic compounds, N-compounds and amides, indicating intensive microbial decomposition. By contrast, the footslopes had the largest C_org-contents (9.3…16.5 g·kg⁻¹) and C-stocks (8.9…15 kg·m⁻²) in the catenae and particular enrichments in lipids, lignin dimers, sterols and free fatty acids. These relatively stabile SOM compound classes are interpreted as leftovers from erosive downslope transport and concurrent microbial decomposition, e.g., they are pronounced at backslope positions, followed by restricted microbial decomposition. This heterogeneous SOM distribution calls for an adapted soil management that reduces erosion and places amendments to field areas, such as the shoulderslope and backslope. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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19 pages, 9073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Degradation Mapping in Drylands Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Data

by Juliane Krenz, Philip Greenwood and Nikolaus J. Kuhn

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3020033 - 07 May 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5097 | Correction

Abstract

Arid and semi-arid landscapes often show a patchwork of bare and vegetated spaces. Their heterogeneous patterns can be of natural origin, but may also indicate soil degradation. This study investigates the use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery to identify the degradation status [...] Read more.

Arid and semi-arid landscapes often show a patchwork of bare and vegetated spaces. Their heterogeneous patterns can be of natural origin, but may also indicate soil degradation. This study investigates the use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery to identify the degradation status of soils, based on the hypothesis that vegetation cover can be used as a proxy for estimating the soils’ health status. To assess the quality of the UAV-derived products, we compare a conventional field-derived map (FM) with two modelled maps based on (i) vegetation cover (RGB map), and (ii) vegetation cover, topographic information, and a flow accumulation analysis (RGB+DEM map). All methods were able to identify areas of soil degradation but differed in the extent of classified soil degradation, with the RGB map classifying the least amount as degraded. The RGB+DEM map classified 12% more as degraded than the FM, due to the wider perspective of the UAV compared to conventional field mapping. Overall, conventional UAVs provide a valuable tool for soil mapping in heterogeneous landscapes where manual field sampling is very time consuming. Additionally, the UAVs’ planform view from a bird’s-eye perspective can overcome the limited view from the surveyors’ (ground-based) vantage point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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Review

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33 pages, 9896 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Science and Logic Associated with Approach Used in the Universal Soil Loss Equation Family of Models

by P. I. A. Kinnell

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(4), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3040062 - 24 Sep 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4151

Abstract

Soil erosion caused by rain is a major factor in degrading agricultural land, and agricultural practices that conserve soil should be used to maintain the long-term sustainability of agricultural land. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was developed in the 1960s and 1970s [...] Read more.

Soil erosion caused by rain is a major factor in degrading agricultural land, and agricultural practices that conserve soil should be used to maintain the long-term sustainability of agricultural land. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was developed in the 1960s and 1970s to predict the long-term average annual soil loss from sheet and rill erosion on field-sized areas as an aid to making management decisions to conserve soil. The USLE uses six factors to take account of the effects of climate, soil, topography, crops, and crop management, and specific actions designed to conserve soil. Although initially developed as an empirical model based on data from more than 10,000 plot years of data collected in plot experiments in the USA, the selection of the independent factors used in the model was made taking account of scientific understanding of the drivers involved in rainfall erosion. In addition, assumptions and approximations were needed to make an operational model that met the needs of the decision makers at that time. Those needs have changed over time, leading to the development of the Revised USLE (RUSLE) and a second version of that, the Revised USLE, Version 2 (RUSLE2). While the original USLE model was not designed to predict short-term variations in erosion well, these developments have involved more use of conceptualization in order to deal with the time-variant impacts of the drivers involved in rainfall erosion. The USLE family of models is based on the concept that the “unit” plot, a bare fallow area 22.1 m long on a 9% slope gradient with cultivation up and down the slope, provides a physical situation where the effect of climate and soil on rainfall erosion can be determined without the need to consider the impact of the four other factors. The science and logic associated with this approach is reviewed. The manner by which the soil erodibility factor is determined from plot data ensures that the long-term average annual soil loss for the unit plot is predicted well, even when the assumption that event soil loss is directly related to the product of event rainfall energy, and the maximum 30-min intensity is not wholly appropriate. RUSLE2 has a capacity to use CLIGEN, the weather generator used in WEPP, and so can predict soil losses based on individual storms in a similar way to WEPP. Including a direct consideration of runoff in determining event erosivity enhances the ability to predict event soil losses when runoff is known or predicted well, but similar to more process-based models, this ability is offset by the difficulty in predicting runoff well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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18 pages, 3726 KiB

Open AccessReview

Land Degradation by Soil Erosion in Nepal: A Review

by Devraj Chalise, Lalit Kumar and Paul Kristiansen

Soil Syst. 2019, 3(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3010012 - 08 Feb 2019

Cited by 126 | Viewed by 25323

Abstract

Land degradation, particularly soil erosion, is currently a major challenge for Nepal. With a high rate of population growth, subsistence-based rural economy, and increasingly intense rainfall events in the monsoon season, Nepal is prone to several forms of land degradation, such as floods, [...] Read more.

Land degradation, particularly soil erosion, is currently a major challenge for Nepal. With a high rate of population growth, subsistence-based rural economy, and increasingly intense rainfall events in the monsoon season, Nepal is prone to several forms of land degradation, such as floods, landslides, and soil erosion. To understand the causes, impacts, and possible management options for soil erosion, a review on the causal factors, status, and amelioration measures for land degradation in Nepal was conducted based on recent information available in national and international journals and grey literature. Intense rainfall and conventional tillage practices coupled with poor soil structure and steep slopes are the main drivers of soil erosion. Soil erosion leads to losses in soil and crop productivity, pollution of land and water resources, and a loss of farm income. Strategies to manage erosion include mulching, cover cropping, contour farming, strip cropping, and conservation agriculture practices, along with bioengineering techniques. Land degradation issues are a prime policy focus in Nepal, including national three- and five-year plans. However, these policies have been generally ineffective in reducing soil erosion, landslides, and floods in relation to the set targets. Realistic plans need to be formulated in Nepal focusing more on capacity enhancement and local participation to actively influence land-degradation processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Land Degradation)

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