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Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensor Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2017) | Viewed by 140425

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. José-Fernán Martínez-Ortega

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Telematics and Electronic Engineering, ETSIS de Telecomunicación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Interests: autonomy and cooperation; ubiquitous computing and internet of things (IoT); cyber physical systems (CPS); underwater; ground and aerial cooperating robots; embedded systems; distributed systems and software architectures; next-generation telematics networks and services
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the near future, oceans will supply a substantial part of human and industrial resources. Currently, most of subsea and offshore operations are performed by divers in dangerous and very expensive missions. This is valid for oil and gas industries, construction, repair and maintenance works in shallow waters, offshore renewable energy exploitations, port infrastructures, etc.

Increasing the autonomy of underwater cooperative vehicles, equipped with different kinds of sensing technologies, could solve the problem of operating in different underwater, non-deterministic working conditions without involving human intervention at sea for safe, efficient and secure missions. This solution comes with many technological challenges that are yet to be solved.

This Special Issue focuses on innovative approaches for sensing, perception, navigation, communication and cognition solutions in cooperation for autonomous networked robot systems in underwater environments. To this purpose, high-quality contributions made by researchers from both academia and industry are expected.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Sensory based motion algorithms
  • Middleware architectures
  • Semantics and information models
  • Intelligent coordination and decision-making algorithms
  • Task and mission planning , adaptive planning and plan repairing
  • Optimized communication networks and protocols
  • Context and situation awareness for environment characterization
  • Autonomous navigation and positioning
  • Hybrid vision and acoustic perception systems
  • Image base localization and 3D mapping systems
  • 2D/3D map fusion
  • object recognition and tracking
  • Simulation models and tools for networked vehicles
  • Energy efficiency algorithms

Prof. Dr. José-Fernán Martínez
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (22 papers)

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Research

5418 KiB  
Article
An Optimized, Data Distribution Service-Based Solution for Reliable Data Exchange Among Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
by Jesús Rodríguez-Molina, Sonia Bilbao, Belén Martínez, Mirgita Frasheri and Baran Cürüklü
Sensors 2017, 17(8), 1802; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17081802 - 05 Aug 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7360
Abstract
Major challenges are presented when managing a large number of heterogeneous vehicles that have to communicate underwater in order to complete a global mission in a cooperative manner. In this kind of application domain, sending data through the environment presents issues that surpass [...] Read more.
Major challenges are presented when managing a large number of heterogeneous vehicles that have to communicate underwater in order to complete a global mission in a cooperative manner. In this kind of application domain, sending data through the environment presents issues that surpass the ones found in other overwater, distributed, cyber-physical systems (i.e., low bandwidth, unreliable transport medium, data representation and hardware high heterogeneity). This manuscript presents a Publish/Subscribe-based semantic middleware solution for unreliable scenarios and vehicle interoperability across cooperative and heterogeneous autonomous vehicles. The middleware relies on different iterations of the Data Distribution Service (DDS) software standard and their combined work between autonomous maritime vehicles and a control entity. It also uses several components with different functionalities deemed as mandatory for a semantic middleware architecture oriented to maritime operations (device and service registration, context awareness, access to the application layer) where other technologies are also interweaved with middleware (wireless communications, acoustic networks). Implementation details and test results, both in a laboratory and a deployment scenario, have been provided as a way to assess the quality of the system and its satisfactory performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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866 KiB  
Article
Task Assignment and Path Planning for Multiple Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Using 3D Dubins Curves †
by Wenyu Cai, Meiyan Zhang and Yahong Rosa Zheng
Sensors 2017, 17(7), 1607; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17071607 - 11 Jul 2017
Cited by 57 | Viewed by 7453
Abstract
This paper investigates the task assignment and path planning problem for multiple AUVs in three dimensional (3D) underwater wireless sensor networks where nonholonomic motion constraints of underwater AUVs in 3D space are considered. The multi-target task assignment and path planning problem is modeled [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the task assignment and path planning problem for multiple AUVs in three dimensional (3D) underwater wireless sensor networks where nonholonomic motion constraints of underwater AUVs in 3D space are considered. The multi-target task assignment and path planning problem is modeled by the Multiple Traveling Sales Person (MTSP) problem and the Genetic Algorithm (GA) is used to solve the MTSP problem with Euclidean distance as the cost function and the Tour Hop Balance (THB) or Tour Length Balance (TLB) constraints as the stop criterion. The resulting tour sequences are mapped to 2D Dubins curves in the X − Y plane, and then interpolated linearly to obtain the Z coordinates. We demonstrate that the linear interpolation fails to achieve G 1 continuity in the 3D Dubins path for multiple targets. Therefore, the interpolated 3D Dubins curves are checked against the AUV dynamics constraint and the ones satisfying the constraint are accepted to finalize the 3D Dubins curve selection. Simulation results demonstrate that the integration of the 3D Dubins curve with the MTSP model is successful and effective for solving the 3D target assignment and path planning problem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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3390 KiB  
Article
Polar Grid Navigation Algorithm for Unmanned Underwater Vehicles
by Zheping Yan, Lu Wang, Wei Zhang, Jiajia Zhou and Man Wang
Sensors 2017, 17(7), 1599; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17071599 - 09 Jul 2017
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5329
Abstract
To solve the unavailability of a traditional strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) for unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) in the polar region, a polar grid navigation algorithm for UUVs is proposed in this paper. Precise navigation is the basis for UUVs to complete missions. [...] Read more.
To solve the unavailability of a traditional strapdown inertial navigation system (SINS) for unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) in the polar region, a polar grid navigation algorithm for UUVs is proposed in this paper. Precise navigation is the basis for UUVs to complete missions. The rapid convergence of Earth meridians and the serious polar environment make it difficult to establish the true heading of the UUV at a particular instant. Traditional SINS and traditional representation of position are not suitable in the polar region. Due to the restrictions of the complex underwater conditions in the polar region, a SINS based on the grid frame with the assistance of the OCTANS and the Doppler velocity log (DVL) is chosen for a UUV navigating in the polar region. Data fusion of the integrated navigation system is realized by a modified fuzzy adaptive Kalman filter (MFAKF). By neglecting the negative terms, and using T-S fuzzy logic in the adaptive regulation of the noise covariance, the proposed filter algorithm can improve navigation accuracy. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the polar grid navigation algorithm can effectively navigate a UUV sailing in the polar region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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4826 KiB  
Article
Maritime Data Transfer Protocol (MDTP): A Proposal for a Data Transmission Protocol in Resource-Constrained Underwater Environments Involving Cyber-Physical Systems
by Jesús Rodríguez-Molina, Belén Martínez, Sonia Bilbao and Tamara Martín-Wanton
Sensors 2017, 17(6), 1330; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17061330 - 08 Jun 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7307
Abstract
The utilization of autonomous maritime vehicles is becoming widespread in operations that are deemed too hazardous for humans to be directly involved in them. One of the ways to increase the productivity of the tools used during missions is the deployment of several [...] Read more.
The utilization of autonomous maritime vehicles is becoming widespread in operations that are deemed too hazardous for humans to be directly involved in them. One of the ways to increase the productivity of the tools used during missions is the deployment of several vehicles with the same objective regarding data collection and transfer, both for the benefit of human staff and policy makers. However, the interchange of data in such an environment poses major challenges, such as a low bandwidth and the unreliability of the environment where transmissions take place. Furthermore, the relevant information that must be sent, as well as the exact size that will allow understanding it, is usually not clearly established, as standardization works are scarce in this domain. Under these conditions, establishing a way to interchange information at the data level among autonomous maritime vehicles becomes of critical importance since the needed information, along with the size of the transferred data, will have to be defined. This manuscript puts forward the Maritime Data Transfer Protocol, (MDTP) a way to interchange standardized pieces of information at the data level for maritime autonomous maritime vehicles, as well as the procedures that are required for information interchange. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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5969 KiB  
Article
AEKF-SLAM: A New Algorithm for Robotic Underwater Navigation
by Xin Yuan, José-Fernán Martínez-Ortega, José Antonio Sánchez Fernández and Martina Eckert
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17051174 - 21 May 2017
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 11331
Abstract
In this work, we focus on key topics related to underwater Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) applications. Moreover, a detailed review of major studies in the literature and our proposed solutions for addressing the problem are presented. The main goal of this paper [...] Read more.
In this work, we focus on key topics related to underwater Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) applications. Moreover, a detailed review of major studies in the literature and our proposed solutions for addressing the problem are presented. The main goal of this paper is the enhancement of the accuracy and robustness of the SLAM-based navigation problem for underwater robotics with low computational costs. Therefore, we present a new method called AEKF-SLAM that employs an Augmented Extended Kalman Filter (AEKF)-based SLAM algorithm. The AEKF-based SLAM approach stores the robot poses and map landmarks in a single state vector, while estimating the state parameters via a recursive and iterative estimation-update process. Hereby, the prediction and update state (which exist as well in the conventional EKF) are complemented by a newly proposed augmentation stage. Applied to underwater robot navigation, the AEKF-SLAM has been compared with the classic and popular FastSLAM 2.0 algorithm. Concerning the dense loop mapping and line mapping experiments, it shows much better performances in map management with respect to landmark addition and removal, which avoid the long-term accumulation of errors and clutters in the created map. Additionally, the underwater robot achieves more precise and efficient self-localization and a mapping of the surrounding landmarks with much lower processing times. Altogether, the presented AEKF-SLAM method achieves reliably map revisiting, and consistent map upgrading on loop closure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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703 KiB  
Article
Virtual-Lattice Based Intrusion Detection Algorithm over Actuator-Assisted Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
by Jing Yan, Xiaolei Li, Xiaoyuan Luo and Xinping Guan
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17051168 - 20 May 2017
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5257
Abstract
Due to the lack of a physical line of defense, intrusion detection becomes one of the key issues in applications of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), especially when the confidentiality has prime importance. However, the resource-constrained property of UWSNs such as sparse deployment [...] Read more.
Due to the lack of a physical line of defense, intrusion detection becomes one of the key issues in applications of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), especially when the confidentiality has prime importance. However, the resource-constrained property of UWSNs such as sparse deployment and energy constraint makes intrusion detection a challenging issue. This paper considers a virtual-lattice-based approach to the intrusion detection problem in UWSNs. Different from most existing works, the UWSNs consist of two kinds of nodes, i.e., sensor nodes (SNs), which cannot move autonomously, and actuator nodes (ANs), which can move autonomously according to the performance requirement. With the cooperation of SNs and ANs, the intruder detection probability is defined. Then, a virtual lattice-based monitor (VLM) algorithm is proposed to detect the intruder. In order to reduce the redundancy of communication links and improve detection probability, an optimal and coordinative lattice-based monitor patrolling (OCLMP) algorithm is further provided for UWSNs, wherein an equal price search strategy is given for ANs to find the shortest patrolling path. Under VLM and OCLMP algorithms, the detection probabilities are calculated, while the topology connectivity can be guaranteed. Finally, simulation results are presented to show that the proposed method in this paper can improve the detection accuracy and save the energy consumption compared with the conventional methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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5012 KiB  
Article
A Probabilistic and Highly Efficient Topology Control Algorithm for Underwater Cooperating AUV Networks
by Ning Li, Baran Cürüklü, Joaquim Bastos, Victor Sucasas, Jose Antonio Sanchez Fernandez and Jonathan Rodriguez
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1022; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17051022 - 04 May 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5676
Abstract
The aim of the Smart and Networking Underwater Robots in Cooperation Meshes (SWARMs) project is to make autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), remote operated vehicles (ROVs) and unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) more accessible and useful. To achieve cooperation and communication between different AUVs, these [...] Read more.
The aim of the Smart and Networking Underwater Robots in Cooperation Meshes (SWARMs) project is to make autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), remote operated vehicles (ROVs) and unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) more accessible and useful. To achieve cooperation and communication between different AUVs, these must be able to exchange messages, so an efficient and reliable communication network is necessary for SWARMs. In order to provide an efficient and reliable communication network for mission execution, one of the important and necessary issues is the topology control of the network of AUVs that are cooperating underwater. However, due to the specific properties of an underwater AUV cooperation network, such as the high mobility of AUVs, large transmission delays, low bandwidth, etc., the traditional topology control algorithms primarily designed for terrestrial wireless sensor networks cannot be used directly in the underwater environment. Moreover, these algorithms, in which the nodes adjust their transmission power once the current transmission power does not equal an optimal one, are costly in an underwater cooperating AUV network. Considering these facts, in this paper, we propose a Probabilistic Topology Control (PTC) algorithm for an underwater cooperating AUV network. In PTC, when the transmission power of an AUV is not equal to the optimal transmission power, then whether the transmission power needs to be adjusted or not will be determined based on the AUV’s parameters. Each AUV determines their own transmission power adjustment probability based on the parameter deviations. The larger the deviation, the higher the transmission power adjustment probability is, and vice versa. For evaluating the performance of PTC, we combine the PTC algorithm with the Fuzzy logic Topology Control (FTC) algorithm and compare the performance of these two algorithms. The simulation results have demonstrated that the PTC is efficient at reducing the transmission power adjustment ratio while improving the network performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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9574 KiB  
Article
Embedded Spherical Localization for Micro Underwater Vehicles Based on Attenuation of Electro-Magnetic Carrier Signals
by Daniel-André Duecker, A. René Geist, Michael Hengeler, Edwin Kreuzer, Marc-André Pick, Viktor Rausch and Eugen Solowjow
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 959; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17050959 - 26 Apr 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6602
Abstract
Self-localization is one of the most challenging problems for deploying micro autonomous underwater vehicles ( μ AUV) in confined underwater environments. This paper extends a recently-developed self-localization method that is based on the attenuation of electro-magnetic waves, to the μ AUV domain. We [...] Read more.
Self-localization is one of the most challenging problems for deploying micro autonomous underwater vehicles ( μ AUV) in confined underwater environments. This paper extends a recently-developed self-localization method that is based on the attenuation of electro-magnetic waves, to the μ AUV domain. We demonstrate a compact, low-cost architecture that is able to perform all signal processing steps present in the original method. The system is passive with one-way signal transmission and scales to possibly large μ AUV fleets. It is based on the spherical localization concept. We present results from static and dynamic position estimation experiments and discuss the tradeoffs of the system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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882 KiB  
Article
Underwater Robot Task Planning Using Multi-Objective Meta-Heuristics
by Itziar Landa-Torres, Diana Manjarres, Sonia Bilbao and Javier Del Ser
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040762 - 04 Apr 2017
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4749
Abstract
Robotics deployed in the underwater medium are subject to stringent operational conditions that impose a high degree of criticality on the allocation of resources and the schedule of operations in mission planning. In this context the so-called cost of a mission must be [...] Read more.
Robotics deployed in the underwater medium are subject to stringent operational conditions that impose a high degree of criticality on the allocation of resources and the schedule of operations in mission planning. In this context the so-called cost of a mission must be considered as an additional criterion when designing optimal task schedules within the mission at hand. Such a cost can be conceived as the impact of the mission on the robotic resources themselves, which range from the consumption of battery to other negative effects such as mechanic erosion. This manuscript focuses on this issue by devising three heuristic solvers aimed at efficiently scheduling tasks in robotic swarms, which collaborate together to accomplish a mission, and by presenting experimental results obtained over realistic scenarios in the underwater environment. The heuristic techniques resort to a Random-Keys encoding strategy to represent the allocation of robots to tasks and the relative execution order of such tasks within the schedule of certain robots. The obtained results reveal interesting differences in terms of Pareto optimality and spread between the algorithms considered in the benchmark, which are insightful for the selection of a proper task scheduler in real underwater campaigns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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6901 KiB  
Article
An Effective Terrain Aided Navigation for Low-Cost Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
by Ling Zhou, Xianghong Cheng, Yixian Zhu, Chenxi Dai and Jinbo Fu
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040680 - 25 Mar 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5829
Abstract
Terrain-aided navigation is a potentially powerful solution for obtaining submerged position fixes for autonomous underwater vehicles. The application of terrain-aided navigation with high-accuracy inertial navigation systems has demonstrated meter-level navigation accuracy in sea trials. However, available sensors may be limited depending on the [...] Read more.
Terrain-aided navigation is a potentially powerful solution for obtaining submerged position fixes for autonomous underwater vehicles. The application of terrain-aided navigation with high-accuracy inertial navigation systems has demonstrated meter-level navigation accuracy in sea trials. However, available sensors may be limited depending on the type of the mission. Such limitations, especially for low-grade navigation sensors, not only degrade the accuracy of traditional navigation systems, but further impact the ability to successfully employ terrain-aided navigation. To address this problem, a tightly-coupled navigation is presented to successfully estimate the critical sensor errors by incorporating raw sensor data directly into an augmented navigation system. Furthermore, three-dimensional distance errors are calculated, providing measurement updates through the particle filter for absolute and bounded position error. The development of the terrain aided navigation system is elaborated for a vehicle equipped with a non-inertial-grade strapdown inertial navigation system, a 4-beam Doppler Velocity Log range sensor and a sonar altimeter. Using experimental data for navigation performance evaluation in areas with different terrain characteristics, the experiment results further show that the proposed method can be successfully applied to the low-cost AUVs and significantly improves navigation performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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7224 KiB  
Article
Objective Video Quality Assessment Based on Machine Learning for Underwater Scientific Applications
by José-Miguel Moreno-Roldán, Miguel-Ángel Luque-Nieto, Javier Poncela and Pablo Otero
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040664 - 23 Mar 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4073
Abstract
Video services are meant to be a fundamental tool in the development of oceanic research. The current technology for underwater networks (UWNs) imposes strong constraints in the transmission capacity since only a severely limited bitrate is available. However, previous studies have shown that [...] Read more.
Video services are meant to be a fundamental tool in the development of oceanic research. The current technology for underwater networks (UWNs) imposes strong constraints in the transmission capacity since only a severely limited bitrate is available. However, previous studies have shown that the quality of experience (QoE) is enough for ocean scientists to consider the service useful, although the perceived quality can change significantly for small ranges of variation of video parameters. In this context, objective video quality assessment (VQA) methods become essential in network planning and real time quality adaptation fields. This paper presents two specialized models for objective VQA, designed to match the special requirements of UWNs. The models are built upon machine learning techniques and trained with actual user data gathered from subjective tests. Our performance analysis shows how both of them can successfully estimate quality as a mean opinion score (MOS) value and, for the second model, even compute a distribution function for user scores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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4711 KiB  
Article
SWARMs Ontology: A Common Information Model for the Cooperation of Underwater Robots
by Xin Li, Sonia Bilbao, Tamara Martín-Wanton, Joaquim Bastos and Jonathan Rodriguez
Sensors 2017, 17(3), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17030569 - 11 Mar 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6885
Abstract
In order to facilitate cooperation between underwater robots, it is a must for robots to exchange information with unambiguous meaning. However, heterogeneity, existing in information pertaining to different robots, is a major obstruction. Therefore, this paper presents a networked ontology, named the Smart [...] Read more.
In order to facilitate cooperation between underwater robots, it is a must for robots to exchange information with unambiguous meaning. However, heterogeneity, existing in information pertaining to different robots, is a major obstruction. Therefore, this paper presents a networked ontology, named the Smart and Networking Underwater Robots in Cooperation Meshes (SWARMs) ontology, to address information heterogeneity and enable robots to have the same understanding of exchanged information. The SWARMs ontology uses a core ontology to interrelate a set of domain-specific ontologies, including the mission and planning, the robotic vehicle, the communication and networking, and the environment recognition and sensing ontology. In addition, the SWARMs ontology utilizes ontology constructs defined in the PR-OWL ontology to annotate context uncertainty based on the Multi-Entity Bayesian Network (MEBN) theory. Thus, the SWARMs ontology can provide both a formal specification for information that is necessarily exchanged between robots and a command and control entity, and also support for uncertainty reasoning. A scenario on chemical pollution monitoring is described and used to showcase how the SWARMs ontology can be instantiated, be extended, represent context uncertainty, and support uncertainty reasoning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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4502 KiB  
Article
Underwater Electromagnetic Sensor Networks—Part I: Link Characterization
by Gara Quintana-Díaz, Pablo Mena-Rodríguez, Iván Pérez-Álvarez, Eugenio Jiménez, Blas-Pablo Dorta-Naranjo, Santiago Zazo, Marina Pérez, Eduardo Quevedo, Laura Cardona and J. Joaquín Hernández
Sensors 2017, 17(1), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010189 - 19 Jan 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7473
Abstract
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) using electromagnetic (EM) technology in marine shallow waters are examined, not just for environmental monitoring but for further interesting applications. Particularly, the use of EM waves is reconsidered in shallow waters due to the benefits offered in this [...] Read more.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) using electromagnetic (EM) technology in marine shallow waters are examined, not just for environmental monitoring but for further interesting applications. Particularly, the use of EM waves is reconsidered in shallow waters due to the benefits offered in this context, where acoustic and optical technologies have serious disadvantages. Sea water scenario is a harsh environment for radiocommunications, and there is no standard model for the underwater EM channel. The high conductivity of sea water, the effect of seabed and the surface make the behaviour of the channel hard to predict. This justifies the need of link characterization as the first step to approach the development of EM underwater sensor networks. To obtain a reliable link model, measurements and simulations are required. The measuring setup for this purpose is explained and described, as well as the procedures used. Several antennas have been designed and tested in low frequency bands. Agreement between attenuation measurements and simulations at different distances was analysed and made possible the validation of simulation setups and the design of different communications layers of the system. This leads to the second step of this work, where data and routing protocols for the sensor network are examined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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3940 KiB  
Article
A Distributed and Energy-Efficient Algorithm for Event K-Coverage in Underwater Sensor Networks
by Peng Jiang, Yiming Xu and Jun Liu
Sensors 2017, 17(1), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010186 - 19 Jan 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6030
Abstract
For event dynamic K-coverage algorithms, each management node selects its assistant node by using a greedy algorithm without considering the residual energy and situations in which a node is selected by several events. This approach affects network energy consumption and balance. Therefore, this [...] Read more.
For event dynamic K-coverage algorithms, each management node selects its assistant node by using a greedy algorithm without considering the residual energy and situations in which a node is selected by several events. This approach affects network energy consumption and balance. Therefore, this study proposes a distributed and energy-efficient event K-coverage algorithm (DEEKA). After the network achieves 1-coverage, the nodes that detect the same event compete for the event management node with the number of candidate nodes and the average residual energy, as well as the distance to the event. Second, each management node estimates the probability of its neighbor nodes’ being selected by the event it manages with the distance level, the residual energy level, and the number of dynamic coverage event of these nodes. Third, each management node establishes an optimization model that uses expectation energy consumption and the residual energy variance of its neighbor nodes and detects the performance of the events it manages as targets. Finally, each management node uses a constrained non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) to obtain the Pareto set of the model and the best strategy via technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS). The algorithm first considers the effect of harsh underwater environments on information collection and transmission. It also considers the residual energy of a node and a situation in which the node is selected by several other events. Simulation results show that, unlike the on-demand variable sensing K-coverage algorithm, DEEKA balances and reduces network energy consumption, thereby prolonging the network’s best service quality and lifetime. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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2540 KiB  
Article
Network Allocation Vector (NAV) Optimization for Underwater Handshaking-Based Protocols
by Junho Cho, Ethungshan Shitiri and Ho-Shin Cho
Sensors 2017, 17(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010032 - 24 Dec 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6294
Abstract
In this paper, we obtained the optimized network allocation vector (NAV) for underwater handshaking-based protocols, as inefficient determination of the NAV leads to unnecessarily long silent periods. We propose a scheme which determines the NAV by taking into account all possible propagation delays: [...] Read more.
In this paper, we obtained the optimized network allocation vector (NAV) for underwater handshaking-based protocols, as inefficient determination of the NAV leads to unnecessarily long silent periods. We propose a scheme which determines the NAV by taking into account all possible propagation delays: propagation delay between a source and a destination; propagation delay between a source and the neighbors; and propagation delay between a destination and the neighbors. Such an approach effectively allows the NAV to be determined precisely equal to duration of a busy channel, and the silent period can be set commensurate to that duration. This allows for improvements in the performance of handshaking-based protocols, such as the carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol, in terms of throughput and fairness. To evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme, performance comparisons were carried out through simulations with prior NAV setting methods. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme outperforms the other schemes in terms of throughput and fairness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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2837 KiB  
Article
Node Redeployment Algorithm Based on Stratified Connected Tree for Underwater Sensor Networks
by Jun Liu, Peng Jiang, Feng Wu, Shanen Yu and Chunyue Song
Sensors 2017, 17(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17010027 - 24 Dec 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4746
Abstract
During the underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) operation, node drift with water environment causes network topology changes. Periodic node location examination and adjustment are needed to maintain good network monitoring quality as long as possible. In this paper, a node redeployment algorithm based on [...] Read more.
During the underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) operation, node drift with water environment causes network topology changes. Periodic node location examination and adjustment are needed to maintain good network monitoring quality as long as possible. In this paper, a node redeployment algorithm based on stratified connected tree for UWSNs is proposed. At every network adjustment moment, self-examination and adjustment on node locations are performed firstly. If a node is outside the monitored space, it returns to the last location recorded in its memory along straight line. Later, the network topology is stratified into a connected tree that takes the sink node as the root node by broadcasting ready information level by level, which can improve the network connectivity rate. Finally, with synthetically considering network coverage and connectivity rates, and node movement distance, the sink node performs centralized optimization on locations of leaf nodes in the stratified connected tree. Simulation results show that the proposed redeployment algorithm can not only keep the number of nodes in the monitored space as much as possible and maintain good network coverage and connectivity rates during network operation, but also reduce node movement distance during node redeployment and prolong the network lifetime. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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473 KiB  
Article
Underwater Electromagnetic Sensor Networks, Part II: Localization and Network Simulations
by Javier Zazo, Sergio Valcarcel Macua, Santiago Zazo, Marina Pérez, Iván Pérez-Álvarez, Eugenio Jiménez, Laura Cardona, Joaquín Hernández Brito and Eduardo Quevedo
Sensors 2016, 16(12), 2176; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16122176 - 17 Dec 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6010
Abstract
In the first part of the paper, we modeled and characterized the underwater radio channel in shallowwaters. In the second part,we analyze the application requirements for an underwaterwireless sensor network (U-WSN) operating in the same environment and perform detailed simulations. We consider two [...] Read more.
In the first part of the paper, we modeled and characterized the underwater radio channel in shallowwaters. In the second part,we analyze the application requirements for an underwaterwireless sensor network (U-WSN) operating in the same environment and perform detailed simulations. We consider two localization applications, namely self-localization and navigation aid, and propose algorithms that work well under the specific constraints associated with U-WSN, namely low connectivity, low data rates and high packet loss probability. We propose an algorithm where the sensor nodes collaboratively estimate their unknown positions in the network using a low number of anchor nodes and distance measurements from the underwater channel. Once the network has been self-located, we consider a node estimating its position for underwater navigation communicating with neighboring nodes. We also propose a communication system and simulate the whole electromagnetic U-WSN in the Castalia simulator to evaluate the network performance, including propagation impairments (e.g., noise, interference), radio parameters (e.g., modulation scheme, bandwidth, transmit power), hardware limitations (e.g., clock drift, transmission buffer) and complete MAC and routing protocols. We also explain the changes that have to be done to Castalia in order to perform the simulations. In addition, we propose a parametric model of the communication channel that matches well with the results from the first part of this paper. Finally, we provide simulation results for some illustrative scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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3297 KiB  
Article
Looking inside the Ocean: Toward an Autonomous Imaging System for Monitoring Gelatinous Zooplankton
by Lorenzo Corgnati, Simone Marini, Luca Mazzei, Ennio Ottaviani, Stefano Aliani, Alessandra Conversi and Annalisa Griffa
Sensors 2016, 16(12), 2124; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16122124 - 14 Dec 2016
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6484
Abstract
Marine plankton abundance and dynamics in the open and interior ocean is still an unknown field. The knowledge of gelatinous zooplankton distribution is especially challenging, because this type of plankton has a very fragile structure and cannot be directly sampled using traditional net [...] Read more.
Marine plankton abundance and dynamics in the open and interior ocean is still an unknown field. The knowledge of gelatinous zooplankton distribution is especially challenging, because this type of plankton has a very fragile structure and cannot be directly sampled using traditional net based techniques. To overcome this shortcoming, Computer Vision techniques can be successfully used for the automatic monitoring of this group.This paper presents the GUARD1 imaging system, a low-cost stand-alone instrument for underwater image acquisition and recognition of gelatinous zooplankton, and discusses the performance of three different methodologies, Tikhonov Regularization, Support Vector Machines and Genetic Programming, that have been compared in order to select the one to be run onboard the system for the automatic recognition of gelatinous zooplankton. The performance comparison results highlight the high accuracy of the three methods in gelatinous zooplankton identification, showing their good capability in robustly selecting relevant features. In particular, Genetic Programming technique achieves the same performances of the other two methods by using a smaller set of features, thus being the most efficient in avoiding computationally consuming preprocessing stages, that is a crucial requirement for running on an autonomous imaging system designed for long lasting deployments, like the GUARD1. The Genetic Programming algorithm has been installed onboard the system, that has been operationally tested in a two-months survey in the Ligurian Sea, providing satisfactory results in terms of monitoring and recognition performances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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5044 KiB  
Article
A High-Efficiency Uneven Cluster Deployment Algorithm Based on Network Layered for Event Coverage in UWSNs
by Shanen Yu, Shuai Liu and Peng Jiang
Sensors 2016, 16(12), 2103; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16122103 - 12 Dec 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4224
Abstract
Most existing deployment algorithms for event coverage in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) usually do not consider that network communication has non-uniform characteristics on three-dimensional underwater environments. Such deployment algorithms ignore that the nodes are distributed at different depths and have different probabilities [...] Read more.
Most existing deployment algorithms for event coverage in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) usually do not consider that network communication has non-uniform characteristics on three-dimensional underwater environments. Such deployment algorithms ignore that the nodes are distributed at different depths and have different probabilities for data acquisition, thereby leading to imbalances in the overall network energy consumption, decreasing the network performance, and resulting in poor and unreliable late network operation. Therefore, in this study, we proposed an uneven cluster deployment algorithm based network layered for event coverage. First, according to the energy consumption requirement of the communication load at different depths of the underwater network, we obtained the expected value of deployment nodes and the distribution density of each layer network after theoretical analysis and deduction. Afterward, the network is divided into multilayers based on uneven clusters, and the heterogeneous communication radius of nodes can improve the network connectivity rate. The recovery strategy is used to balance the energy consumption of nodes in the cluster and can efficiently reconstruct the network topology, which ensures that the network has a high network coverage and connectivity rate in a long period of data acquisition. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm improves network reliability and prolongs network lifetime by significantly reducing the blind movement of overall network nodes while maintaining a high network coverage and connectivity rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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1132 KiB  
Article
An Improved Forwarding of Diverse Events with Mobile Sinks in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
by Waseem Raza, Farzana Arshad, Imran Ahmed, Wadood Abdul, Sanaa Ghouzali, Iftikhar Azim Niaz and Nadeem Javaid
Sensors 2016, 16(11), 1850; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16111850 - 04 Nov 2016
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4685
Abstract
In this paper, a novel routing strategy to cater the energy consumption and delay sensitivity issues in deep underwater wireless sensor networks is proposed. This strategy is named as ESDR: Event Segregation based Delay sensitive Routing. In this strategy sensed events are segregated [...] Read more.
In this paper, a novel routing strategy to cater the energy consumption and delay sensitivity issues in deep underwater wireless sensor networks is proposed. This strategy is named as ESDR: Event Segregation based Delay sensitive Routing. In this strategy sensed events are segregated on the basis of their criticality and, are forwarded to their respective destinations based on forwarding functions. These functions depend on different routing metrics like: Signal Quality Index, Localization free Signal to Noise Ratio, Energy Cost Function and Depth Dependent Function. The problem of incomparable values of previously defined forwarding functions causes uneven delays in forwarding process. Hence forwarding functions are redefined to ensure their comparable values in different depth regions. Packet forwarding strategy is based on the event segregation approach which forwards one third of the generated events (delay sensitive) to surface sinks and two third events (normal events) are forwarded to mobile sinks. Motion of mobile sinks is influenced by the relative distribution of normal nodes. We have also incorporated two different mobility patterns named as; adaptive mobility and uniform mobility for mobile sinks. The later one is implemented for collecting the packets generated by the normal nodes. These improvements ensure optimum holding time, uniform delay and in-time reporting of delay sensitive events. This scheme is compared with the existing ones and outperforms the existing schemes in terms of network lifetime, delay and throughput. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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2239 KiB  
Article
Underwater Sensor Network Redeployment Algorithm Based on Wolf Search
by Peng Jiang, Yang Feng and Feng Wu
Sensors 2016, 16(10), 1754; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16101754 - 21 Oct 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4940
Abstract
This study addresses the optimization of node redeployment coverage in underwater wireless sensor networks. Given that nodes could easily become invalid under a poor environment and the large scale of underwater wireless sensor networks, an underwater sensor network redeployment algorithm was developed based [...] Read more.
This study addresses the optimization of node redeployment coverage in underwater wireless sensor networks. Given that nodes could easily become invalid under a poor environment and the large scale of underwater wireless sensor networks, an underwater sensor network redeployment algorithm was developed based on wolf search. This study is to apply the wolf search algorithm combined with crowded degree control in the deployment of underwater wireless sensor networks. The proposed algorithm uses nodes to ensure coverage of the events, and it avoids the prematurity of the nodes. The algorithm has good coverage effects. In addition, considering that obstacles exist in the underwater environment, nodes are prevented from being invalid by imitating the mechanism of avoiding predators. Thus, the energy consumption of the network is reduced. Comparative analysis shows that the algorithm is simple and effective in wireless sensor network deployment. Compared with the optimized artificial fish swarm algorithm, the proposed algorithm exhibits advantages in network coverage, energy conservation, and obstacle avoidance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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16118 KiB  
Article
Design and Experimental Validation of a USBL Underwater Acoustic Positioning System
by Joel Reis, Marco Morgado, Pedro Batista, Paulo Oliveira and Carlos Silvestre
Sensors 2016, 16(9), 1491; https://doi.org/10.3390/s16091491 - 14 Sep 2016
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 10557
Abstract
This paper presents the steps for developing a low-cost POrtableNavigation Tool for Underwater Scenarios (PONTUS) to be used as a localization device for subsea targets. PONTUS consists of an integrated ultra-short baseline acoustic positioning system aided by an inertial navigation system. Built on [...] Read more.
This paper presents the steps for developing a low-cost POrtableNavigation Tool for Underwater Scenarios (PONTUS) to be used as a localization device for subsea targets. PONTUS consists of an integrated ultra-short baseline acoustic positioning system aided by an inertial navigation system. Built on a practical design, it can be mounted on an underwater robotic vehicle or be operated by a scuba diver. It also features a graphical user interface that provides information on the tracking of the designated target, in addition to some details on the physical properties inside PONTUS. A full disclosure of the architecture of the tool is first presented, followed by thorough technical descriptions of the hardware components ensemble and the software development process. A series of experiments was carried out to validate the developed prototype, and the results are presented herein, which allow assessing its overall performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Autonomy and Cooperation in Underwater Networked Robot Systems)
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