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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensor Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 July 2021) | Viewed by 19954

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Dr. Lorena Parra

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Research Institute for Integrated Management of Coastal Areas (IGIC), Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022 València, Spain
Interests: water quality; wireless sensor networks; environmental monitoring; aquaculture; precision agriculture; pollution monitoring; physical sensors; chemical sensors; remote sensing
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Special Issue Information

In the era of big data and the Internet of things, wireless sensor networks are essential for generating data. The use of wireless sensor networks (WSN) for environmental monitoring can provide an excellent tool to analyze the changes and impacts caused by human activity. Even the use of WSN for water and environmental monitoring is not a new idea; we can find several gaps in the current proposals.

The current high-cost of sensors and nodes, the elevate power consumption, and the requirement of maintenance are some of the outstanding issues. Furthermore, the coexistence of several communication technologies with different characteristics (bandwidth, coverage, and power consumption) is another topic that must be addressed when designing a WSN.

This Special Issue will collect the latest advances in WSN for water and environment monitoring, including, but not limited to, design and calibration of new sensors, development of WSN for innovative applications, or performance of deployed WSN for long term monitoring.

Dr. Lorena Parra
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Physical sensors
Chemical sensors
Underwater monitoring
Precision agriculture
Smart cities
Long-term monitoring
Energy efficient
Sensor calibration
WSN performance
Pollution monitoring
Ecosystems monitoring

Published Papers (4 papers)

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30 pages, 5076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ROBINA: Rotational Orbit-Based Inter-Node Adjustment for Acoustic Routing Path in the Internet of Underwater Things (IoUTs)

by Umar Draz, Sana Yasin, Tariq Ali, Amjad Ali, Zaid Bin Faheem, Ning Zhang, Muhammad Hasan Jamal and Dong-Young Suh

Sensors 2021, 21(17), 5968; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21175968 - 06 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2294

Abstract

The Internet of Underwater Things (IoUTs) enables various underwater objects be connected to accommodate a wide range of applications, such as oil and mineral exportations, disaster detection, and tracing tracking systems. As about 71% of our earth is covered by water and one-fourth of the population lives around this, the IoUT expects to play a vital role. It is imperative to pursue reliable communication in this vast domain, as human beings’ future depends on water activities and resources. Therefore, there is a urgent need for underwater communication to be reliable, end-to-end secure, and collision/void node-free, especially when the routing path is established between sender and sonobuoys. The foremost issue discussed in this area is its routing path, which has high security and bandwidth without simultaneous multiple reflections. Short communication range is also a problem (because of an absence of inter-node adjustment); the acoustic signals have short ranges and maximum-scaling factors that cause a delay in communication. Therefore, we proposed Rotational Orbit-Based Inter Node Adjustment (ROBINA) with variant Path-Adjustment (PA-ROBINA) and Path Loss (PL-ROBINA) for IoUTs to achive reliable communication between the sender and sonobuoys. Additionally, the mathematical-based path loss model was discussed to cover the PL-ROBINA strategy. Extensive simulations were conducted with various realistic parameters and the results were compared with state-of-the-art routing protocols. Extensive simulations proved that the proposed routing scheme outperformed different realistic parameters; for example, packet transmission 45% increased with an average end-to-end delay of only 0.3% respectively. Furthermore, the transmission loss and path loss (measured in dB) were 25 and 46 dB, respectively, compared with other algorithms, for example, EBER² 54%, WDFAD-BDR 54%, AEDG 49%, ASEGD 55%, AVH-AHH-VBF 54.5%, and TANVEER 39%, respectively. In addition, the individual parameters with ROBINA and TANVEER were also compared, in which ROBINA achieved a 98% packet transmission ratio compared with TANVEER, which was only 82%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks for Water and Environmental Monitoring)

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27 pages, 47099 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Deployment Strategies of Soil Monitoring WSN for Precision Agriculture Irrigation Scheduling in Rural Areas

by Laura García, Lorena Parra, Jose M. Jimenez, Mar Parra, Jaime Lloret, Pedro V. Mauri and Pascal Lorenz

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1693; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051693 - 01 Mar 2021

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 9294

Abstract

Deploying wireless sensor networks (WSN) in rural environments such as agricultural fields may present some challenges that affect the communication between the nodes due to the vegetation. These challenges must be addressed when implementing precision agriculture (PA) systems that monitor the fields and estimate irrigation requirements with the gathered data. In this paper, different WSN deployment configurations for a soil monitoring PA system are studied to identify the effects of the rural environment on the signal and to identify the key aspects to consider when designing a PA wireless network. The PA system is described, providing the architecture, the node design, and the algorithm that determines the irrigation requirements. The testbed includes different types of vegetation and on-ground, near-ground, and above-ground ESP32 Wi-Fi node placements. The results of the testbed show high variability in densely vegetated areas. These results are analyzed to determine the theoretical maximum coverage for acceptable signal quality for each of the studied configurations. The best coverage was obtained for the near-ground deployment. Lastly, the aspects of the rural environment and the deployment that affect the signal such as node height, crop type, foliage density, or the form of irrigation are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks for Water and Environmental Monitoring)

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23 pages, 4828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Communication for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks: Triangle Metric Based Multi-Layered Routing Protocol

by Ahmad M. Khasawneh, Omprakash Kaiwartya, Jaime Lloret, Hayfa Y. Abuaddous, Laith Abualigah, Mohammad Al Shinwan, Mahmoud Ahmad Al-Khasawneh, Marwan Mahmoud and Rupak Kharel

Sensors 2020, 20(24), 7278; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20247278 - 18 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2707

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a non-localization routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), namely, the triangle metric based multi-layered routing protocol (TM2RP). The main idea of the proposed TM2RP is to utilize supernodes along with depth information and residual energy to balance the energy consumption between sensors. Moreover, TM2RP is the first multi-layered and multi-metric pressure routing protocol that considers link quality with residual energy to improve the selection of next forwarding nodes with more reliable and energy-efficient links. The aqua-sim package based on the ns-2 simulator was used to evaluate the performance of the proposed TM2RP. The obtained results were compared to other similar methods such as depth based routing (DBR) and multi-layered routing protocol (MRP). Simulation results showed that the proposed protocol (TM2RP) obtained better outcomes in terms of energy consumption, network lifetime, packet delivery ratio, and end-to-end delay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks for Water and Environmental Monitoring)

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22 pages, 5489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Identification of Irrigation Water Pollution Sources and Pathways with a Wireless Sensor Network and Blockchain Framework

by Yu-Pin Lin, Hussnain Mukhtar, Kuan-Ting Huang, Joy R. Petway, Chiao-Ming Lin, Cheng-Fu Chou and Shih-Wei Liao

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3634; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133634 - 28 Jun 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4566

Abstract

Real-time identification of irrigation water pollution sources and pathways (PSP) is crucial to ensure both environmental and food safety. This study uses an integrated framework based on the Internet of Things (IoT) and the blockchain technology that incorporates a directed acyclic graph (DAG)-configured wireless sensor network (WSN), and GIS tools for real-time water pollution source tracing. Water quality sensors were installed at monitoring stations in irrigation channel systems within the study area. Irrigation water quality data were delivered to databases via the WSN and IoT technologies. Blockchain and GIS tools were used to trace pollution at mapped irrigation units and to spatially identify upstream polluted units at irrigation intakes. A Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program (WASP) model was then used to simulate water quality by using backward propagation and identify potential pollution sources. We applied a “backward pollution source tracing” (BPST) process to successfully and rapidly identify electrical conductivity (EC) and copper (Cu²⁺) polluted sources and pathways in upstream irrigation water. With the BPST process, the WASP model effectively simulated EC and Cu²⁺ concentration data to identify likely EC and Cu²⁺ pollution sources. The study framework is the first application of blockchain technology for effective real-time water quality monitoring and rapid multiple PSPs identification. The pollution event data associated with the PSP are immutable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensor Networks for Water and Environmental Monitoring)

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