Research

16 pages, 2664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fog Computing for Control of Cyber-Physical Systems in Industry Using BCI

by Paula Ivone Rodríguez-Azar, Jose Manuel Mejía-Muñoz, Oliverio Cruz-Mejía, Rafael Torres-Escobar and Lucero Verónica Ruelas López

Sensors 2024, 24(1), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24010149 - 27 Dec 2023

Viewed by 643

Abstract

Brain-computer interfaces use signals from the brain, such as EEG, to determine brain states, which in turn can be used to issue commands, for example, to control industrial machinery. While Cloud computing can aid in the creation and operation of industrial multi-user BCI [...] Read more.

Brain-computer interfaces use signals from the brain, such as EEG, to determine brain states, which in turn can be used to issue commands, for example, to control industrial machinery. While Cloud computing can aid in the creation and operation of industrial multi-user BCI systems, the vast amount of data generated from EEG signals can lead to slow response time and bandwidth problems. Fog computing reduces latency in high-demand computation networks. Hence, this paper introduces a fog computing solution for BCI processing. The solution consists in using fog nodes that incorporate machine learning algorithms to convert EEG signals into commands to control a cyber-physical system. The machine learning module uses a deep learning encoder to generate feature images from EEG signals that are subsequently classified into commands by a random forest. The classification scheme is compared using various classifiers, being the random forest the one that obtained the best performance. Additionally, a comparison was made between the fog computing approach and using only cloud computing through the use of a fog computing simulator. The results indicate that the fog computing method resulted in less latency compared to the solely cloud computing approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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11 pages, 1793 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

False Protection of Real-Time Traffic with Quieting in Heterogeneous Wi-Fi 7 Networks: An Experimental Study

by Andrey Barannikov, Ilya Levitsky and Evgeny Khorov

Sensors 2023, 23(21), 8927; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23218927 - 02 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1240

Abstract

To provide limited delays for remote sensing and control, gaming, and virtual reality applications, the Wi-Fi 7 standard introduces the Restricted Target Wake Time (R-TWT) mechanism, which reserves time intervals for particular stations with such real-time traffic. As legacy stations do not support [...] Read more.

To provide limited delays for remote sensing and control, gaming, and virtual reality applications, the Wi-Fi 7 standard introduces the Restricted Target Wake Time (R-TWT) mechanism, which reserves time intervals for particular stations with such real-time traffic. As legacy stations do not support R-TWT, the access point forbids channel access during these intervals for legacy stations. Quiet Intervals have been announced for this purpose. Since the support for the Quieting Framework can be configured as mandatory in some networks, Quiet Intervals are assumed to be valid protection for R-TWT. The paper describes experimental results with mass-market devices that disprove this assumption. The paper reveals significant inconsistencies between the standard and widely used devices, e.g., the inability to schedule multiple Quiet Intervals. It will be a significant problem for Wi-Fi 7 devices using R-TWT in heterogeneous networks with legacy devices and will require much effort from academia and industry to solve. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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31 pages, 7260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Overview of the nMPRA and nHSE Microarchitectures for Real-Time Applications

by Vasile Gheorghiță Găitan and Ionel Zagan

Sensors 2021, 21(13), 4500; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21134500 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2091

Abstract

In the context of real-time control systems, it has become possible to obtain temporal resolutions of microseconds due to the development of embedded systems and the Internet of Things (IoT), the optimization of the use of processor hardware, and the improvement of architectures [...] Read more.

In the context of real-time control systems, it has become possible to obtain temporal resolutions of microseconds due to the development of embedded systems and the Internet of Things (IoT), the optimization of the use of processor hardware, and the improvement of architectures and real-time operating systems (RTOSs). All of these factors, together with current technological developments, have led to efficient central processing unit (CPU) time usage, guaranteeing both the predictability of thread execution and the satisfaction of the timing constraints required by real-time systems (RTSs). This is mainly due to time sharing in embedded RTSs and the pseudo-parallel execution of tasks in single-processor and multi-processor systems. The non-deterministic behavior triggered by asynchronous external interrupts and events in general is due to the fact that, for most commercial RTOSs, the execution of the same instruction ends in a variable number of cycles, primarily due to hazards. The software implementation of RTOS-specific mechanisms may lead to significant delays that can affect deadline requirements for some RTSs. The main objective of this paper was the design and deployment of innovative solutions to improve the performance of RTOSs by implementing their functions in hardware. The obtained architectures are intended to provide feasible scheduling, even if the total CPU utilization is close to the maximum limit. The contributions made by the authors will be followed by the validation of a high-performing microarchitecture, which is expected to allow a thread context switching time and event response time of only one clock cycle each. The main purpose of the research presented in this paper is to improve these factors of RTSs, as well as the implementation of the hardware structure used for the static and dynamic scheduling of tasks, for RTOS mechanisms specific to resource sharing and intertask communication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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23 pages, 6255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Complete Automation of an Energy Consumption Reduction Strategy from a Water Treatment and Distribution Facility, Inside an Industrial Internet of Things-Compliant Proactive Historian Application

by Andrei Nicolae, Adrian Korodi and Ioan Silea

Sensors 2021, 21(7), 2569; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072569 - 06 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2272

Abstract

The Industrial Internet of Things and Industry 4.0 paradigms are steering the industrial landscape towards better connected entities, superior interoperability and information exchange, which lays the basis for developing more intelligent solutions that are already starting to bring numerous benefits. The current research [...] Read more.

The Industrial Internet of Things and Industry 4.0 paradigms are steering the industrial landscape towards better connected entities, superior interoperability and information exchange, which lays the basis for developing more intelligent solutions that are already starting to bring numerous benefits. The current research aligns to this course, in an attempt to build an automated and autonomous software tool, capable of reducing the energy consumption of a water treatment and distribution facility, by optimizing the water sources usage. Based on several previous researches, the present paper details both the complete automation of the optimizing strategy inside a proactive historian application and the tests executed with the finished solution. Possessing the abilities to directly influence the monitored system in a non-invasive manner, and to link all the sequences of the algorithm automatically, the solution is now ready for long-term functioning without any external interference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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11 pages, 5282 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

BACnet Application Layer over Bluetooth—Implementation and Validation

by Nicoleta Cristina Gaitan and Ioan Ungurean

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020538 - 13 Jan 2021

Viewed by 3033

Abstract

The development of the smart building concept and building automation field is based on the exponential evolution of monitoring and control technologies. Residents of the smart building must interact with the monitoring and control system. A widely used method is specific applications executed [...] Read more.

The development of the smart building concept and building automation field is based on the exponential evolution of monitoring and control technologies. Residents of the smart building must interact with the monitoring and control system. A widely used method is specific applications executed on smartphones, tablets, and PCs with Bluetooth connection to the building control system. At this time, smartphones are increasingly used in everyday life for payments, reading newspapers, monitoring activity, and interacting with smart homes. The devices used to build the control system are interconnected through a specific network, one of the most widespread being the Building Automation and Control Network (BACnet) network. Here, we propose the use of the BACnet Application Layer over Bluetooth. We present a proposal of a concept and a practical implementation that can be used to test and validate the operation of the BACnet Application Layer over Bluetooth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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23 pages, 4359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Implementation and Performance Evaluation of an IoT Access Gateway for the Modbus Extension

by Vasile Gheorghiță Găitan and Ionel Zagan

Sensors 2021, 21(1), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010246 - 01 Jan 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4826

Abstract

This paper presents the relevant aspects regarding the experimental implementation and performance evaluation of an Internet of things (IoT) gateway for the Modbus extension. The proposed Modbus extension specifications are extended by defining the new optimized message format, and the structure of the [...] Read more.

This paper presents the relevant aspects regarding the experimental implementation and performance evaluation of an Internet of things (IoT) gateway for the Modbus extension. The proposed Modbus extension specifications are extended by defining the new optimized message format, and the structure of the acquisition cycle for obtaining a deterministic temporal behavior and solutions are presented for the description of devices at the MODBUS protocol level. Three different implementations are presented, and the Modbus extension’s performance is validated regarding the efficiency in the use of the acquisition cycle time. The software and hardware processing time and the importance and effect of the various components are analyzed and evaluated. They all support the implementation of an Internet of things gateway for Modbus extension. This paper introduces solutions for the structure of the acquisition cycle to include other valuable extensions, discusses the performance of a real implementation in the form of a gateway, adds new features to the Modbus extension specification, and strengthens some of the existing ones. In accordance with the novelty and contribution of this paper to the field of local industrial networks, the results obtained in the analysis, testing, and validation of the Modbus extension protocol refer to the extending of the Modbus functions for industrial process monitoring and control management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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16 pages, 5242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Unsupervised Classification of Hyperspectral Images Using Voronoi Diagrams and Strong Patterns

by Laura Bianca Bilius and Ştefan Gheorghe Pentiuc

Sensors 2020, 20(19), 5684; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20195684 - 05 Oct 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2121

Abstract

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) are a powerful tool to classify the elements from an area of interest by their spectral signature. In this paper, we propose an efficient method to classify hyperspectral data using Voronoi diagrams and strong patterns in the absence of ground [...] Read more.

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) are a powerful tool to classify the elements from an area of interest by their spectral signature. In this paper, we propose an efficient method to classify hyperspectral data using Voronoi diagrams and strong patterns in the absence of ground truth. HSI processing consumes a great deal of computing resources because HSIs are represented by large amounts of data. We propose a heuristic method that starts by applying Parafac decomposition for reduction and to construct the abundances matrix. Furthermore, the representative nodes from the abundances map are searched for. A multi-partition of these nodes is found, and based on this, strong patterns are obtained. Then, based on the hierarchical clustering of strong patterns, an optimum partition is found. After strong patterns are labeled, we construct the Voronoi diagram to extend the classification to the entire HSI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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19 pages, 1704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Software Architecture for the Industrial Internet of Things—A Conceptual Model

by Ioan Ungurean and Nicoleta Cristina Gaitan

Sensors 2020, 20(19), 5603; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20195603 - 30 Sep 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5914

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging concept that has revolutionized the use of new technologies in everyday life. The economic impact of IoT becoming very important, and it began to be used in the industrial environment under the name of the [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging concept that has revolutionized the use of new technologies in everyday life. The economic impact of IoT becoming very important, and it began to be used in the industrial environment under the name of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) concept, which is a sub-domain of IoT. The IIoT changes the way industrial processes are controlled and monitored, increasing operating efficiency. This article proposes a software architecture for IIoT that has a low degree of abstraction compared to the reference architectures presented in the literature. The architecture is organized on four-layer and it integrates the latest concepts related to fog and edge computing. These concepts are activated through the use of fog/edge/gateway nodes, where the processing of data acquired from things is performed and it is the place where things interact with each other in the virtual environment. The main contributions of this paper are the proposal and description of a complete IIoT software architecture, the use of a unified address space, and the use of the computing platform based on SoC (System on Chip) with specialized co-processors in order to be able to execute in real-time certain time-critical operations specific to the industrial environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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15 pages, 5048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploiting the RSSI Long-Term Data of a WSN for the RF Channel Modeling in EPS Environments

by Roddy A. R. Antayhua, Maicon D. Pereira, Nestor C. Fernandes and Fernando Rangel de Sousa

Sensors 2020, 20(11), 3076; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113076 - 29 May 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2224

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a methodology to use the received signal strength indicator (RSSI) available by the protocol stack of an installed Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) at an electric-power-system environment (EPS) as a tool for obtaining the characteristic of its communication channel. [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose a methodology to use the received signal strength indicator (RSSI) available by the protocol stack of an installed Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) at an electric-power-system environment (EPS) as a tool for obtaining the characteristic of its communication channel. Thereby, it is possible to optimize the settings and configuration of the network after its deployment, which is usually run empirically without any previous knowledge of the channel. A study case of a hydroelectric power plant is presented, where measurements recorded over a two-month period were analyzed and treated to obtain the large-scale characteristics of the radiofrequency channel at 2.4 GHz. In addition, we showed that instantaneous RSSI data can also be used to detect specific issues in the network, such as repetitive patterns in the transmitted power level of the nodes, and information about its environment, such as the presence of external sources of electromagnetic interference. As a result, we demonstrate the practical use of the RSSI long-term data generated by the WSN for its own performance optimization and the detection of particular events in an EPS or any similar industrial environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Real Time Systems for IIoT)

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