Research

13 pages, 2021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Artificial Intelligence Distinguishes Pathological Gait: The Analysis of Markerless Motion Capture Gait Data Acquired by an iOS Application (TDPT-GT)

by Chifumi Iseki, Tatsuya Hayasaka, Hyota Yanagawa, Yuta Komoriya, Toshiyuki Kondo, Masayuki Hoshi, Tadanori Fukami, Yoshiyuki Kobayashi, Shigeo Ueda, Kaneyuki Kawamae, Masatsune Ishikawa, Shigeki Yamada, Yukihiko Aoyagi and Yasuyuki Ohta

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 6217; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23136217 - 07 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2235

Abstract

Distinguishing pathological gait is challenging in neurology because of the difficulty of capturing total body movement and its analysis. We aimed to obtain a convenient recording with an iPhone and establish an algorithm based on deep learning. From May 2021 to November 2022 [...] Read more.

Distinguishing pathological gait is challenging in neurology because of the difficulty of capturing total body movement and its analysis. We aimed to obtain a convenient recording with an iPhone and establish an algorithm based on deep learning. From May 2021 to November 2022 at Yamagata University Hospital, Shiga University, and Takahata Town, patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (n = 48), Parkinson’s disease (n = 21), and other neuromuscular diseases (n = 45) comprised the pathological gait group (n = 114), and the control group consisted of 160 healthy volunteers. iPhone application TDPT-GT captured the subjects walking in a circular path of about 1 meter in diameter, a markerless motion capture system, with an iPhone camera, which generated the three-axis 30 frames per second (fps) relative coordinates of 27 body points. A light gradient boosting machine (Light GBM) with stratified k-fold cross-validation (k = 5) was applied for gait collection for about 1 min per person. The median ability model tested 200 frames of each person’s data for its distinction capability, which resulted in the area under a curve of 0.719. The pathological gait captured by the iPhone could be distinguished by artificial intelligence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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21 pages, 4344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Automated Sitting Posture Recognition System Utilizing Pressure Sensors

by Ming-Chih Tsai, Edward T.-H. Chu and Chia-Rong Lee

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 5894; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135894 - 25 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4592

Abstract

Prolonged sitting with poor posture can lead to various health problems, including upper back pain, lower back pain, and cervical pain. Maintaining proper sitting posture is crucial for individuals while working or studying. Existing pressure sensor-based systems have been proposed to recognize sitting [...] Read more.

Prolonged sitting with poor posture can lead to various health problems, including upper back pain, lower back pain, and cervical pain. Maintaining proper sitting posture is crucial for individuals while working or studying. Existing pressure sensor-based systems have been proposed to recognize sitting postures, but their accuracy ranges from 80% to 90%, leaving room for improvement. In this study, we developed a sitting posture recognition system called SPRS. We identified key areas on the chair surface that capture essential characteristics of sitting postures and employed diverse machine learning technologies to recognize ten common sitting postures. To evaluate the accuracy and usability of SPRS, we conducted a ten-minute sitting session with arbitrary postures involving 20 volunteers. The experimental results demonstrated that SPRS achieved an impressive accuracy rate of up to 99.1% in recognizing sitting postures. Additionally, we performed a usability survey using two standard questionnaires, the System Usability Scale (SUS) and the Questionnaire for User Interface Satisfaction (QUIS). The analysis of survey results indicated that SPRS is user-friendly, easy to use, and responsive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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17 pages, 1233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Willingness of Participation in an Application-Based Digital Data Collection among Different Social Groups and Smartphone User Clusters

by Ákos Máté, Zsófia Rakovics, Szilvia Rudas, Levente Wallis, Bence Ságvári, Ákos Huszár and Júlia Koltai

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4571; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094571 - 08 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1801

Abstract

The main question of this paper is what factors influence willingness to participate in a smartphone-application-based data collection where participants both fill out a questionnaire and let the app collect data on their smartphone usage. Passive digital data collection is becoming more common, [...] Read more.

The main question of this paper is what factors influence willingness to participate in a smartphone-application-based data collection where participants both fill out a questionnaire and let the app collect data on their smartphone usage. Passive digital data collection is becoming more common, but it is still a new form of data collection. Due to the novelty factor, it is important to investigate how willingness to participate in such studies is influenced by both socio-economic variables and smartphone usage behaviour. We estimate multilevel models based on a survey experiment with vignettes for different characteristics of data collection (e.g., different incentives, duration of the study). Our results show that of the socio-demographic variables, age has the largest influence, with younger age groups having a higher willingness to participate than older ones. Smartphone use also has an impact on participation. Advanced users are more likely to participate, while users who only use the basic functions of their device are less likely to participate than those who use it mainly for social media. Finally, the explorative analysis with interaction terms between levels has shown that the circumstances of data collection matter differently for different social groups. These findings provide important clues on how to fine-tune circumstances to improve participation rates in this novel passive digital data collection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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38 pages, 5115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Distributed Supervisor Architecture for a General Wafer Production System

by Fotis N. Koumboulis, Dimitrios G. Fragkoulis and Panteleimon Georgakopoulos

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4545; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094545 - 07 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1359

Abstract

The current trend in the wafer production industry is to expand the production chain with more production stations, more buffers, and robots. The goal of the present paper is to develop a distributed control architecture to face this challenge by controlling wafer industrial [...] Read more.

The current trend in the wafer production industry is to expand the production chain with more production stations, more buffers, and robots. The goal of the present paper is to develop a distributed control architecture to face this challenge by controlling wafer industrial units in a general production chain, with a parametric number of production stations, one robot per two stations where each robot serves its two adjacent production stations, and one additional robot serving a parametric number of stations. The control architecture is analyzed for individual control units, one per robot, monitoring appropriate event signals from the control units of the adjacent robots. Each control unit is further analyzed to individual supervisors. In the present paper, a modular parametric discrete event model with respect to the number of production stations, the number of buffers, and the number of robotic manipulators is developed. A set of specifications for the total system is proposed in the form of rules. The specifications are translated and decomposed to a set of local regular languages for each robotic manipulator. The distributed supervisory control architecture is developed based on the local regular languages, where a set of local supervisors are designed for each robotic manipulator. The desired performance of the total manufacturing system, the realizability, and the nonblocking property of the proposed architecture is guaranteed. Finally, implementation issues are tackled, and the complexity of the distributed architecture is determined in a parametric formula. Overall, the contribution of the present paper is the development of a parametric model of the wafer manufacturing systems and the development of a parametric distributed supervisory control architecture. The present results provide a ready-to-hand solution for the continuously expanding wafer production industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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14 pages, 4673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Temperature Correction of Piezoelectric Ceramic Sensor for Traffic Weighing-In-Motion

by Hailu Yang, Yue Yang, Guanyi Zhao, Yang Guo and Linbing Wang

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4312; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094312 - 27 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1445

Abstract

Weighing-In-Motion (WIM) technology is one of the main tools for pavement management. It can accurately describe the traffic situation on the road and minimize overload problems. WIM sensors are the core elements of the WIM system. The excellent basic performance of WIMs sensor [...] Read more.

Weighing-In-Motion (WIM) technology is one of the main tools for pavement management. It can accurately describe the traffic situation on the road and minimize overload problems. WIM sensors are the core elements of the WIM system. The excellent basic performance of WIMs sensor and its ability to maintain a stable output under different temperature environments are critical to the entire process of WIM. In this study, a WIM sensor was developed, which adopted a PZT-5H piezoelectric ceramic and integrated a temperature probe into the sensor. The designed WIM sensor has the advantages of having a small size, simple structure, high sensitivity, and low cost. A sine loading test was designed to test the basic performance of the piezoelectric sensor by using amplitude scanning and frequency scanning. The test results indicated that the piezoelectric sensor exhibits a clear linear relationship between input load and output voltage under constant environmental temperature. The linear correlation coefficient R² of the fitting line is up to 0.999, and the sensitivity is 4.04858 mV/N at a loading frequency of 2 Hz at room temperature. The sensor has good frequency-independent characteristics. However, the temperature has a significant impact on it. Therefore, the output performance of the piezoelectric ceramic sensor is stabilized under different temperature conditions by using a multivariate nonlinear fitting algorithm for temperature compensation. The fitting result R² is 0.9686, the root mean square error (RMSE) is 0.2497, and temperature correction was achieved. This study has significant implications for the application of piezoelectric ceramic sensors in road WIM systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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21 pages, 5650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method for Estimating Chlorophyll and Carotenoid Concentrations in Leaves: A Two Hyperspectral Sensor Approach

by Renan Falcioni, Werner Camargos Antunes, José Alexandre Melo Demattê and Marcos Rafael Nanni

Sensors 2023, 23(8), 3843; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23083843 - 09 Apr 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3002

Abstract

Leaf optical properties can be used to identify environmental conditions, the effect of light intensities, plant hormone levels, pigment concentrations, and cellular structures. However, the reflectance factors can affect the accuracy of predictions for chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations. In this study, we tested [...] Read more.

Leaf optical properties can be used to identify environmental conditions, the effect of light intensities, plant hormone levels, pigment concentrations, and cellular structures. However, the reflectance factors can affect the accuracy of predictions for chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that technology using two hyperspectral sensors for both reflectance and absorbance data would result in more accurate predictions of absorbance spectra. Our findings indicated that the green/yellow regions (500–600 nm) had a greater impact on photosynthetic pigment predictions, while the blue (440–485 nm) and red (626–700 nm) regions had a minor impact. Strong correlations were found between absorbance (R² = 0.87 and 0.91) and reflectance (R² = 0.80 and 0.78) for chlorophyll and carotenoids, respectively. Carotenoids showed particularly high and significant correlation coefficients using the partial least squares regression (PLSR) method (R²_C = 0.91, R²cv = 0.85, and R²_P = 0.90) when associated with hyperspectral absorbance data. Our hypothesis was supported, and these results demonstrate the effectiveness of using two hyperspectral sensors for optical leaf profile analysis and predicting the concentration of photosynthetic pigments using multivariate statistical methods. This method for two sensors is more efficient and shows better results compared to traditional single sensor techniques for measuring chloroplast changes and pigment phenotyping in plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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20 pages, 7399 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Window-Based Energy Selecting X-ray Imaging and Charge Sharing in Cadmium Zinc Telluride Linear Array Detectors for Contaminant Detection

by Antonino Buttacavoli, Fabio Principato, Gaetano Gerardi, Donato Cascio, Giuseppe Raso, Manuele Bettelli, Andrea Zappettini, Vincenzo Taormina and Leonardo Abbene

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3196; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063196 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1227

Abstract

The spectroscopic and imaging performance of energy-resolved photon counting detectors, based on new sub-millimetre boron oxide encapsulated vertical Bridgman cadmium zinc telluride linear arrays, are presented in this work. The activities are in the framework of the AVATAR X project, planning the development [...] Read more.

The spectroscopic and imaging performance of energy-resolved photon counting detectors, based on new sub-millimetre boron oxide encapsulated vertical Bridgman cadmium zinc telluride linear arrays, are presented in this work. The activities are in the framework of the AVATAR X project, planning the development of X-ray scanners for contaminant detection in food industry. The detectors, characterized by high spatial (250 µm) and energy (<3 keV) resolution, allow spectral X-ray imaging with interesting image quality improvements. The effects of charge sharing and energy-resolved techniques on contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) enhancements are investigated. The benefits of a new energy-resolved X-ray imaging approach, termed window-based energy selecting, in the detection of low- and high-density contaminants are also shown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

30 pages, 9065 KiB

Open AccessReview

Development and Core Technologies for Intelligent SWaP³ Infrared Cameras: A Comprehensive Review and Analysis

by Jingjie Jiao, Lixing Zhao, Wenhao Pan and Xiaoyan Li

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4189; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094189 - 22 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2055

Abstract

With the development of infrared detection and imaging technology, infrared cameras (IRCs) play an important role in many fields, such as military, industry, and civilian. Additionally, the requirements for the size, performance, and intelligence of IRCs are becoming more and more strict. Consequently, [...] Read more.

With the development of infrared detection and imaging technology, infrared cameras (IRCs) play an important role in many fields, such as military, industry, and civilian. Additionally, the requirements for the size, performance, and intelligence of IRCs are becoming more and more strict. Consequently, the associated research and development (R&D) of IRCs is gradually focused on the aspects of miniaturization, high performance, intelligence, low power consumption, and low cost, involving many frontier fields, including artificial intelligence, new materials, new optical systems, and electronics systems. In fact, there are continual studies on intelligent SWaP³ IRCs, but unfortunately, a systematic arrangement and analysis are lacking. Therefore, a systematical and comprehensive review for the developments and core technologies of the intelligent SWaP³ IRCs is really needed. In this paper, in terms of the aforementioned requirements, we conduct a review and analysis of current intelligent SWaP³ IRCs based on 90 literature and statistics in recent decades to provide the relevant developers with a helpful reference for facilitating the indicator optimization of intelligent SWaP³ IRCs with new developed technologies. We analyze the development of SWaP³ IRCs in the aspects of lightweight, miniaturization, low price, and high performance, including hyperspectral resolution, high spatial resolution, large field of view (FOV), and wide dynamic elaborately. Moreover, the development in low power consumption and intelligence is also discussed in detail. Additionally, we briefly summarize the primary applications of intelligent SWaP³ IRCs in military, scientific, and civil. Then, the core technologies comprising high-integration, lightweight, hyperspectral imaging (HSI), low-power consumption, as well as the realization of high performance such as high-resolution, high-frame, and wide-dynamic range of SWaP³ IRCs are discussed and analyzed in detail. Finally, we prospect for the intelligent SWaP³ IRCs that it is necessary to continuously expand the concept of SWaP³ by reliability, stability, extensibility, and safety. In addition, it is useful to embed cutting-edge technologies such as small pixel pitch array, multi-sensors fusion, and deploy intelligent algorithms to IRCs. Additionally, the improvement of the whole machine from multi-dimension such as chip, camera, and system is expected and needs to be taken more seriously. It is hoped that this paper can provide a reference for the R&D of intelligent SWaP³ IRCs in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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25 pages, 6064 KiB

Open AccessReview

Satellite Data Potentialities in Solid Waste Landfill Monitoring: Review and Case Studies

by Lorenzo Giuliano Papale, Giorgia Guerrisi, Davide De Santis, Giovanni Schiavon and Fabio Del Frate

Sensors 2023, 23(8), 3917; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23083917 - 12 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4756

Abstract

Remote sensing can represent an important instrument for monitoring landfills and their evolution over time. In general, remote sensing can offer a global and rapid view of the Earth’s surface. Thanks to a wide variety of heterogeneous sensors, it can provide high-level information, [...] Read more.

Remote sensing can represent an important instrument for monitoring landfills and their evolution over time. In general, remote sensing can offer a global and rapid view of the Earth’s surface. Thanks to a wide variety of heterogeneous sensors, it can provide high-level information, making it a useful technology for many applications. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a review of relevant methods based on remote sensing for landfill identification and monitoring. The methods found in the literature make use of measurements acquired from both multi-spectral and radar sensors and exploit vegetation indexes, land surface temperature, and backscatter information, either separately or in combination. Moreover, additional information can be provided by atmospheric sounders able to detect gas emissions (e.g., methane) and hyperspectral sensors. In order to provide a comprehensive overview of the full potential of Earth observation data for landfill monitoring, this article also provides applications of the main procedures presented to selected test sites. These applications highlight the potentialities of satellite-borne sensors for improving the detection and delimitation of landfills and enhancing the evaluation of waste disposal effects on environmental health. The results revealed that a single-sensor-based analysis can provide significant information on the landfill evolution. However, a data fusion approach that incorporates data acquired from heterogeneous sensors, including visible/near infrared, thermal infrared, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR), can result in a more effective instrument to fully support the monitoring of landfills and their effect on the surrounding area. In particular, the results show that a synergistic use of multispectral indexes, land surface temperature, and the backscatter coefficient retrieved from SAR sensors can improve the sensitivity to changes in the spatial geometry of the considered site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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15 pages, 835 KiB

Open AccessReview

Evolution of Portable Sensors for In-Vivo Dose and Time-Activity Curve Monitoring as Tools for Personalized Dosimetry in Molecular Radiotherapy

by Lidia Strigari, Raffaella Marconi and Elena Solfaroli-Camillocci

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2599; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052599 - 26 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1563

Abstract

Treatment personalization in Molecular Radiotherapy (MRT) relies on pre- and post-treatment SPECT/ PET-based images and measurements to obtain a patient-specific absorbed dose-rate distribution map and its evolution over time. Unfortunately, the number of time points that are available per patient to investigate individual [...] Read more.

Treatment personalization in Molecular Radiotherapy (MRT) relies on pre- and post-treatment SPECT/ PET-based images and measurements to obtain a patient-specific absorbed dose-rate distribution map and its evolution over time. Unfortunately, the number of time points that are available per patient to investigate individual pharmacokinetics is often reduced by limited patient compliance or SPECT or PET/CT scanner availability for dosimetry in busy departments. The adoption of portable sensors for in-vivo dose monitoring during the entire treatment could improve the assessment of individual biokinetics in MRT and, thus, the treatment personalization. The evolution of portable devices, non-SPECT/PET-based options, already used for monitoring radionuclide activity transit and accumulation during therapy with radionuclides (i.e., MRT or brachytherapy), is presented to identify valuable ones, which combined with conventional nuclear medicine imaging systems could be effective in MRT. External probes, integration dosimeters and active detecting systems were included in the study. The devices and their technology, the range of applications, the features and limitations are discussed. Our overview of the available technologies encourages research and development of portable devices and dedicated algorithms for MRT patient-specific biokinetics study. This would represent a crucial advancement towards personalized treatment in MRT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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30 pages, 1151 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Digital Twin Paradigm Applied to Soil Quality Assessment: A Systematic Literature Review

by Letícia Silva, Francisco Rodríguez-Sedano, Paula Baptista and João Paulo Coelho

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23021007 - 15 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2843

Abstract

This article presents the results regarding a systematic literature review procedure on digital twins applied to precision agriculture. In particular, research and development activities aimed at the use of digital twins, in the context of predictive control, with the purpose of improving soil [...] Read more.

This article presents the results regarding a systematic literature review procedure on digital twins applied to precision agriculture. In particular, research and development activities aimed at the use of digital twins, in the context of predictive control, with the purpose of improving soil quality. This study was carried out through an exhaustive search of scientific literature on five different databases. A total of 158 articles were extracted as a result of this search. After a first screening process, only 11 articles were considered to be aligned with the current topic. Subsequently, these articles were categorised to extract all relevant information, using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses methods. Based on the obtained results, there are two main conclusions to draw: First, when compared with industrial processes, there is only a very slight rising trend regarding the use of digital twins in agriculture. Second, within the time frame in which this work was carried out, it was not possible to find any published paper on the use of digital twins for soil quality improvement within a model predictive control context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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Other

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34 pages, 3675 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Automated Road Defect and Anomaly Detection for Traffic Safety: A Systematic Review

by Munish Rathee, Boris Bačić and Maryam Doborjeh

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5656; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125656 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4986

Abstract

Recently, there has been a substantial increase in the development of sensor technology. As enabling factors, computer vision (CV) combined with sensor technology have made progress in applications intended to mitigate high rates of fatalities and the costs of traffic-related injuries. Although past [...] Read more.

Recently, there has been a substantial increase in the development of sensor technology. As enabling factors, computer vision (CV) combined with sensor technology have made progress in applications intended to mitigate high rates of fatalities and the costs of traffic-related injuries. Although past surveys and applications of CV have focused on subareas of road hazards, there is yet to be one comprehensive and evidence-based systematic review that investigates CV applications for Automated Road Defect and Anomaly Detection (ARDAD). To present ARDAD’s state-of-the-art, this systematic review is focused on determining the research gaps, challenges, and future implications from selected papers (N = 116) between 2000 and 2023, relying primarily on Scopus and Litmaps services. The survey presents a selection of artefacts, including the most popular open-access datasets (D = 18), research and technology trends that with reported performance can help accelerate the application of rapidly advancing sensor technology in ARDAD and CV. The produced survey artefacts can assist the scientific community in further improving traffic conditions and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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6 pages, 212 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Measurement Uncertainty in Clinical Validation Studies of Sensors

by John Mark Ansermino, Guy Albert Dumont and Amy Sarah Ginsburg

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 2900; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23062900 - 07 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1538

Abstract

Accurate clinical sensors and devices are essential to support optimal medical decision-making, and accuracy can be demonstrated through the conduct of clinical validation studies using validated reference sensors and/or devices for comparison. Typically unmeasurable, the true reference value can be substituted with an [...] Read more.

Accurate clinical sensors and devices are essential to support optimal medical decision-making, and accuracy can be demonstrated through the conduct of clinical validation studies using validated reference sensors and/or devices for comparison. Typically unmeasurable, the true reference value can be substituted with an accepted physiological measurement with an associated uncertainty. We describe a basic model of measurement uncertainty that specifies the factors that may degrade the accuracy of an observed measurement value from a sensor, and we detail validation study design strategies that may be used to quantify and minimize these uncertainties. In addition, we describe a model that extends the observed measurement uncertainty to the resultant clinical decision and the factors that may impact the uncertainty of this decision. Clinical validation studies should be designed to estimate and minimize uncertainty that is unrelated to the sensor accuracy. The contribution of measurement observation uncertainty to clinical decision-making should be minimized but also acknowledged and incorporated into the clinical decision-making process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

29 pages, 3299 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Management of Climate Resilience: Exploring the Potential of Digital Twin Technology, 3D City Modelling, and Early Warning Systems

by Khurram Riaz, Marion McAfee and Salem S. Gharbia

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2659; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052659 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4658

Abstract

Cities, and in particular those in coastal low-lying areas, are becoming increasingly susceptible to climate change, the impact of which is worsened by the tendency for population concentration in these areas. Therefore, comprehensive early warning systems are necessary to minimize harm from extreme [...] Read more.

Cities, and in particular those in coastal low-lying areas, are becoming increasingly susceptible to climate change, the impact of which is worsened by the tendency for population concentration in these areas. Therefore, comprehensive early warning systems are necessary to minimize harm from extreme climate events on communities. Ideally, such a system would allow all stakeholders to acquire accurate up-to-date information and respond effectively. This paper presents a systematic review that highlights the significance, potential, and future directions of 3D city modelling, early warning systems, and digital twins in the creation of technology for building climate resilience through the effective management of smart cities. In total, 68 papers were identified through the PRISMA approach. A total of 37 case studies were included, among which (n = 10) define the framework for a digital twin technology, (n = 14) involve the design of 3D virtual city models, and (n = 13) entail the generation of early warning alerts using the real-time sensor data. This review concludes that the bidirectional flow of data between a digital model and the real physical environment is an emerging concept for enhancing climate resilience. However, the research is primarily in the phase of theoretical concepts and discussion, and numerous research gaps remain regarding the implementation and use of a bidirectional data flow in a true digital twin. Nonetheless, ongoing innovative research projects are exploring the potential of digital twin technology to address the challenges faced by communities in vulnerable areas, which will hopefully lead to practical solutions for enhancing climate resilience in the near future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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43 pages, 2386 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Low-Cost Sensors for Monitoring Coastal Climate Hazards: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Tasneem Ahmed, Leo Creedon and Salem S. Gharbia

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1717; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031717 - 03 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3234

Abstract

Unequivocal change in the climate system has put coastal regions around the world at increasing risk from climate-related hazards. Monitoring the coast is often difficult and expensive, resulting in sparse monitoring equipment lacking in sufficient temporal and spatial coverage. Thus, low-cost methods to [...] Read more.

Unequivocal change in the climate system has put coastal regions around the world at increasing risk from climate-related hazards. Monitoring the coast is often difficult and expensive, resulting in sparse monitoring equipment lacking in sufficient temporal and spatial coverage. Thus, low-cost methods to monitor the coast at finer temporal and spatial resolution are imperative for climate resilience along the world’s coasts. Exploiting such low-cost methods for the development of early warning support could be invaluable to coastal settlements. This paper aims to provide the most up-to-date low-cost techniques developed and used in the last decade for monitoring coastal hazards and their forcing agents via systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature in three scientific databases: Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect. A total of 60 papers retrieved from these databases through the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) protocol were analysed in detail to yield different categories of low-cost sensors. These sensors span the entire domain for monitoring coastal hazards, as they focus on monitoring coastal zone characteristics (e.g., topography), forcing agents (e.g., water levels), and the hazards themselves (e.g., coastal flooding). It was found from the meta-analysis of the retrieved papers that terrestrial photogrammetry, followed by aerial photogrammetry, was the most widely used technique for monitoring different coastal hazards, mainly coastal erosion and shoreline change. Different monitoring techniques are available to monitor the same hazard/forcing agent, for instance, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), time-lapse cameras, and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for monitoring coastal morphological changes such as beach erosion, creating opportunities to not only select but also combine different techniques to meet specific monitoring objectives. The sensors considered in this paper are useful for monitoring the most pressing challenges in coastal zones due to the changing climate. Such a review could be extended to encompass more sensors and variables in the future due to the systematic approach of this review. This study is the first to systematically review a wide range of low-cost sensors available for the monitoring of coastal zones in the context of changing climate and is expected to benefit coastal researchers and managers to choose suitable low-cost sensors to meet their desired objectives for the regular monitoring of the coast to increase climate resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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