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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Process Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 31788

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Dr. Nevijo Zdolec

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Department of Hygiene, Technology and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: meat safety; foodborne pathogens; antimicrobials; food safety systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The complex agri-food chain in different cultures may be accompanied with specific and unknown microbial hazards and risk. Therefore, strict microbiological risk assessment of emerging and novel pathogens in animal–human–environment interactions is strongly needed today.

The microbiological safety of food relies on the effectiveness of specific hygienic procedures and technological processes. The concept of food safety has changed in recent years from a hazard- to a risk-based approach coupled with targeted preventive interventions along the food chain. The process from food production to consumption may be very challenging from a microbiological point of view. In that sense, this Special Issue on the “Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain” will give a broad view to available tools and process interventions to combat traditional and potential microbiological hazards within the whole agri-food chain.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

- Food safety assurance systems;

- Epidemiology of foodborne pathogens;

- Microbiological risk assessment in food safety;

- On-farm food safety;

- Emerging pathogens in food chain;

- Food processing hygiene and microbiological food safety;

- Effect of food processing methods on foodborne pathogens;

- Reduction of hazardous microbial metabolites in food;

- Thermal and non-thermal inactivation of microbes in food;

- Challenge tests;

- Bio-preservation and hurdle technology;

- Beneficial microbes in food;

- Antimicrobial capacity of natural compounds in food;

- Traditional and industrial food production: microbiological risk.

Dr. Nevijo Zdolec
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Food chain
Hygiene and technology
Emerging foodborne pathogens
Toxic microbial metabolites
Risk assessment
Food processing
Interventions
Microbial inactivation
Beneficial microbes
Natural compounds

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 175 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to Special Issue: Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain

by Nevijo Zdolec

Processes 2022, 10(1), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010149 - 12 Jan 2022

Viewed by 956

Abstract

Ensuring microbiological safety in the food (of animal origin) chain is a challenging task due to the complex interactions among animals, humans and the environment [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

10 pages, 259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biogenic Amine Content in Retailed Cheese Varieties Produced with Commercial Bacterial or Mold Cultures

by Nevijo Zdolec, Tanja Bogdanović, Krešimir Severin, Vesna Dobranić, Snježana Kazazić, Jozo Grbavac, Jelka Pleadin, Sandra Petričević and Marta Kiš

Processes 2022, 10(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010010 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2831

Abstract

Biogenic amines (BAs) are considered a potential microbiological toxicological hazard in aged cheese. Risk mitigation strategies include good hygiene practice measures, thermal treatment of milk and the use of competitive dairy cultures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the amount of BAs—tryptamine, β-phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine and spermine—in the core and rind of cheeses ripened by bacteria (n = 61) and by mold cultures (n = 8). The microbial communities were counted, and the dominant lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were identified, corresponding to the BA concentrations. The total BA content was highest in the core of semi-hard cheeses (353.98 mg/kg), followed by mold cheeses (248.99 mg/kg) and lowest in hard cheeses (157.38 mg/kg). The highest amount of BAs was present in the rind of cheeses with mold (240.52 mg/kg), followed by semi-hard (174.99 mg/kg) and hard cheeses (107.21 mg/kg). Tyramine was the most abundant BA, represented by 75.4% in mold cheeses, 41.3% in hard cheese and 35% of total BAs in semi-hard cheeses. Histamine was present above the defined European maximum level (ML) of 100 mg/kg in only two semi-hard and three hard cheeses. High amount of BAs (above 600 mg/kg) in cheeses, mainly tyramine, were associated with the presence of Enterococcus durans, while negligible BA concentrations were found in cheeses ripened with Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Lactococcus lactis or Lacticaseibacillus paracasei cultures. This study has shown that retailed cheese varieties produced with commercial bacterial or mold cultures have acceptable levels of biogenic amines with respect to consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

15 pages, 1778 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Influence of Surface Mycobiota on Sensory Properties of “Istarski pršut” and “Dalmatinski pršut”

by Tina Lešić, Nada Vahčić, Ivica Kos, Manuela Zadravec, Dragan Milićević, Irena Perković, Eddy Listeš and Jelka Pleadin

Processes 2021, 9(12), 2287; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9122287 - 20 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2045

Abstract

This study aimed to identify surface mould species overgrowing the Croatian protected meat products “Istarski pršut” and “Dalmatinski pršut” and their effect on sensory properties. Dry-cured hams were produced in 2018/2019 and obtained from annual fairs. The predominant surface species found on “Dalmatinski pršut” were Aspergillus chevalieri, Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus cibarius, whereas those overgrowing “Istarski pršut” were Aspergillus proliferans, P. citrinum and Penicillium salamii. The results show species diversity, higher presence, and greater variety of Aspergillus species in “Dalmatinski pršut” in comparison to “Istarski pršut”, and significant variations in 9 of 20 sensory attributes. Principal component analysis revealed a clear distinction between the two, and a large contribution of P. salamii and Penicillium bialowienzense to one principal component. The texture traits, smoky odour, muscle and subcutaneous fatty tissue colour, and mould species found are valuable for product characterisation. The results also indicate that mould species may be responsible for some sensory traits, such as tenderness, juiciness, and lesser freshness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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8 pages, 1240 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Identification of Microbial Flora in Dry Aged Beef to Evaluate the Rancidity during Dry Aging

by Sejeong Kim, Jong-Chan Kim, Sunhyun Park, Jinkwi Kim, Yohan Yoon and Heeyoung Lee

Processes 2021, 9(11), 2049; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112049 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2925

Abstract

Dry aging creates a unique taste and flavor in beef; however, the process also causes rancidity, which is harmful to humans. During dry aging, the microbial flora in beef changes continuously; thus, this change can be used as an indicator of rancidity. The objective of this study was to analyze the correlation between microbial flora in beef and rancidity during dry aging. The round of beef (2.5–3 kg) was dry aged under 1.5 ± 1 °C and 82 ± 5% moisture for 17 weeks. The microflora in the dry aged beef was analyzed by pyrosequencing. The volatile basic nitrogen (VBN) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) values were also measured. Primers were designed to detect and quantify bacteria using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The VBN and TBARS values in the dry aged beef depreciated from week 11 of aging. The levels of Streptococcus spp., Pantoea spp., and Pseudomonas spp. significantly changed at around week 11. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that the levels of Pantoea spp. and Streptococcus spp. could be used to identify rancidity during dry aging. Thus, among the microbial flora in dry aged beef, Pantoea spp. and Streptococcus spp. can be used to determine the rancidity of dry aged beef. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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8 pages, 1747 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Microbiome Associated with Slovak Traditional Ewe’s Milk Lump Cheese

by Andrea Lauková, Lenka Micenková, Monika Pogány Simonová, Valentína Focková, Jana Ščerbová, Martin Tomáška, Emília Dvorožňáková and Miroslav Kološta

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1603; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091603 - 07 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

Worldwide consumers increasingly demand traditional/local products, to which those made from ewe’s milk belong. In Slovakia, dairy products made from ewe’s milk have a long tradition. A total of seventeen farmhouse fresh ewe’s milk lump cheeses from various local farm producers in central Slovakia were sampled at farms and then analyzed. Based on the sequencing data analysis, the phylum Firmicutes dominated (60.92%) in ewe’s lump cheeses, followed with the phylum Proteobacteria (38.23%), Actinobacteria (0.38%) and Bacteroidetes (0.35%). The phylum Firmicutes was represented by six genera, among which the highest amount possessed the genus Streptococcus (41.13%) followed with the genus Lactococcus (8.54%), Fructobacillus (3.91%), Enterococcus (3.18%), Staphylococcus (1.80%) and the genus Brochotrix (0.08%). The phylum Proteobacteria in ewe’s lump cheeses involved eight Gram-negative genera: Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Ewingella, Escherichia-Shigella, Pantoea and Moraxella. The phylum Bacteroidetes involved three genera: Bacteroides, Sphingobacterium and Chrysobacterium. Results presented are original; the microbiome of Slovak ewe’s milk lump cheese has been not analyzed at those taxonomic levels up to now. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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12 pages, 1763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Bacillus Species from Market Foods in Beijing, China

by Qiao Hu, Yuwen Fang, Jiajia Zhu, Wenjiao Xu and Kui Zhu

Processes 2021, 9(5), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050866 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2833

Abstract

Foodborne diseases have been witnessing a constant rising trend worldwide, mainly caused by pathogenic microorganisms, such as Bacillus spp., posing a direct threat to public health. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the biological risk of foodborne and probiotic Bacillus spp. in Beijing markets. A total of 55 Bacillus isolates, including 29 B. cereus, 9 B. licheniformis and 7 B. subtilis, mostly found in dairy products (32.7%), were recovered from 106 samples and identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry and polymerase chain reaction methods. The susceptibility towards 16 antibiotics was determined using a broth microdilution method. Bacillus showed a high level of resistance to florfenicol (100%), lincomycin (100%), tiamulin (78.2%) and ampicillin (67.3%), while they were all susceptible or intermediate to vancomycin and rifampin. Additionally, we obtained the whole genome of 19 Bacillus strains using high-throughput sequencing, and the rates of resistance genes van, fosB, erm and tet were 57.9%, 57.9%, 21.1% and 26.3%, respectively. Moreover, 100%, 9.1%, 45.5% and 100% of these isolates carried virulence genes nhe, hbl, cytK and entFM, respectively. Lastly, 60% Bacillus strains were positive in hemolysis tests, and 3 B. licheniformis strains displayed an inhibitory activity on the growth of S. aureus ATCC 29213 using agar overlay technique. Our study outlines the characteristics of foodborne Bacillus spp. and provides information for the monitoring of food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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9 pages, 289 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Enterococcal Species Associated with Slovak Raw Goat Milk, Their Safety and Susceptibility to Lantibiotics and Durancin ED26E/7

by Andrea Lauková, Valentína Focková and Monika Pogány Simonová

Processes 2021, 9(4), 681; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040681 - 13 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1450

Abstract

Goat milk has become a popular item of human consumption due to its originality. Enterococci are ubiquitous bacteria, and they can also be found in traditional dairy products. This study focuses on the safety of enterococci from Slovak raw goat milk and on their susceptibility to lantibiotic bacteriocins and durancin ED26E/7, which has not previously been studied. Biofilm formation ability in enterococci, virulence factor genes, enzyme production and antibiotic profile were investigated. Samples of raw goat milk (53) were collected from 283 goats in Slovakia. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry identified three enterococcal species: Enterococcus faecium, E. hirae and E. mundtii, with dominant occurrence of the species E. faecium. Low-grade biofilm formation ability (0.1 ≤ A₅₇₀ < 1.0) was found in four strains of E. faecium. Gelatinase, hyaluronidase, aggregation substance and enterococcal surface protein genes were absent in these enterococci. Gene efaAfm (adhesin) was detected in five E. faecium strains. However, it was not detected in biofilm-forming strains. Enterococci detected in Slovak raw goat milk were found not to have pathogenic potential; four strains even produced high amounts of useful β-galactosidase. The strains were susceptible to lantibiotic bacteriocin treatment and to durancin ED26E/7 as well, which represents original information in dairy production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

17 pages, 2233 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Cladosporium cladosporioides on the Composition of Mycoflora and the Quality Parameters of Table Eggs during Storage

by Pavlina Jevinová, Monika Pipová, Ivana Regecová, Soňa Demjanová, Boris Semjon, Slavomír Marcinčák, Jozef Nagy and Ivona Kožárová

Processes 2021, 9(4), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040613 - 31 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2639

Abstract

The eggshells of 120 experimental one-day-old table eggs were contaminated with the spore suspension of Cladosporium cladosporioides, divided into three groups (A–C) and stored at three different temperatures (3 °C, 11 °C and 20 °C) for 28 days. Visible growth of molds on/in experimental eggs was not observed within the entire storage period. No significant differences in the numbers of molds were found between particular groups of eggs. However, the composition of egg mycoflora was greatly influenced by storage conditions. Three mold genera were identified using the PCR method. The highest mold numbers were determined on Day 14 (Groups A and C) and Day 21 (Group B) when the maximum relative humidity and dew point temperature were recorded. On the same days, the dominance of Penicillium spp. and the minimum eggshell firmness were observed. Noticeable changes in egg quality were observed in eggs stored at 20 °C, and most of these eggs were downgraded at the end of storage period. The growth ability differed significantly among three mold genera. Penicillium spp. and Fusarium spp. showed better growth intensity at increased values (0.91–0.94) of water activity (a_w) indicating a possible risk associated with the occurrence of mycotoxins in the egg contents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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14 pages, 2393 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Identification of Penicillium verrucosum, Penicillium commune, and Penicillium crustosum Isolated from Chicken Eggs

by Soňa Demjanová, Pavlina Jevinová, Monika Pipová and Ivana Regecová

Processes 2021, 9(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9010053 - 29 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7630

Abstract

Penicillium species belong to main causative agents of food spoilage leading to significant economic losses and potential health risk for consumers. These fungi have been isolated from various food matrices, including table eggs. In this study, both conventional Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Polymerase Chain Reaction-Internal Transcribed Spacer-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-ITS-RFLP) methods were used for species identification of Penicillium (P.) spp. isolated from the eggshells of moldy chicken eggs. Seven restriction endonucleases (Bsp1286I, XmaI, HaeIII, HinfI, MseI, SfcI, Hpy188I) were applied to create ribosomal restriction patterns of amplified ITS regions. To identify P. verrucosum, P. commune, and P. crustosum with the help of conventional PCR assay, species-specific primer pairs VERF/VERR, COMF/COMR, and CRUF/CRUR were designed on the base of 5.8 subunit-Internal Transcribed Spacer (5.8S-ITS) region. Altogether, 121 strains of microscopic filamentous fungi were isolated by traditional culture mycological examination. After morphological evaluation of both macroscopic and microscopic features, 96 strains were classified in Penicillium spp. Two molecular methods used have confirmed eight isolates as P. verrucosum, 42 isolates as P. commune, and 19 isolates as P. crustosum. Both PCR-ITS-RFLP and conventional PCR assays appear to be suitable alternatives for rapid identification of the above mentioned Penicillium species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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13 pages, 1953 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Antimicrobial Resistance of Lactobacillus johnsonii and Lactobacillus zeae in Raw Milk

by Jana Výrostková, Ivana Regecová, Mariana Kováčová, Slavomír Marcinčák, Eva Dudriková and Jana Maľová

Processes 2020, 8(12), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121627 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2620

Abstract

Lactobacillus johnsonii and Lactobacillus zeae are among the lactobacilli with probiotic properties, which occur in sour milk products, cheeses, and to a lesser extent in raw milk. Recently, resistant strains have been detected in various species of lactobacilli. The aim of the study was to determine the incidence of resistant Lactobacillus johnsonii and Lactobacillus zeae strains in various types of raw milk. A total of 245 isolates were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry and polymerase chain reaction methods as Lactobacillus sp., of which 23 isolates of Lactobacillus johnsonii and 18 isolates of Lactobacillus zeae were confirmed. Determination of susceptibility to selected antibiotics was performed using the E-test and broth dilution method, where 7.3% of lactobacilli strains were evaluated as ampicillin-resistant, 14.7% of isolates as erythromycin-resistant, and 4.9% of isolates as clindamycin-resistant. The genus Lactobacillus johnsonii had the highest resistance to erythromycin (34.8%), similar to Lactobacillus zeae (33.3%). Of the 41 isolates, the presence of the gene was confirmed in five Lactobacillus johnsonii strains and in two strains of Lactobacillus zeae. The presence of resistant strains of Lactobacillus johnsonii and Lactobacillus zeae is a potential risk in terms of spreading antimicrobial resistance through the food chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

13 pages, 270 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Meat Safety from Farm to Slaughter—Risk-Based Control of Yersinia enterocolitica and Toxoplasma gondii

by Nevijo Zdolec and Marta Kiš

Processes 2021, 9(5), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050815 - 07 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3116

Abstract

The implementation of the traditional meat safety control system has significantly contributed to increasing food safety and public health protection. However, several biological hazards have emerged in meat production, requiring a comprehensive approach to their control, as traditional methods of meat inspection at the slaughterhouse are not able to detect them. While national control programs exist for the most important meat-related hazards, similar data are still lacking for certain neglected threats, such as Yersinia enterocolitica or Toxoplasma gondii. The obstacle in controlling these hazards in the meat chain is their presence in latently infected, asymptomatic animals. Their effective control can only be achieved through systematic preventive measures, surveillance or monitoring, and antimicrobial interventions on farms and in slaughterhouses. To establish such a system, it is important to collect all relevant data on hazard-related epidemiological indicators from the meat chain, which should provide relevant guidance for interventions at the harvest and post-harvest stage. The proposed approach is expected to improve the existing system and provide many opportunities to improve food safety and public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Microbiological Safety in the Food Chain)

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