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Polymers
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Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and...
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Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Analysis and Characterization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2023) | Viewed by 15843

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ing Kong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Advanced Polymer and Composite Materials Laboratory, Department of Engineering, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3552, Australia
Interests: biomaterials and scaffolds; biodegradable materials; composite and hybrid materials; chemistry and physics of hydrogels; nanomaterials; nanotechnology; tissue engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Kim Yeow Tshai

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Malaysia
Interests: plastic forming processes (injection moulding, thermoforming, blow moulding, extrusion); constitutive materials modelling of highly nonlinear polymeric systems; natural and synthetic polymers; fibre reinforced composites; nanocomposites; characterization of process-structure-property relationships of different polymeric systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues, 

Driven by rapid urbanization and growing populations, the global annual waste generated by agricultural, industrial and urban activities continuously increases and causes devastating environmental pollution. The escalating issues associated with waste generation demands special administration. One sustainable waste management approach is to utilise solid waste from industrial, urban/municipal, and agriculture/forest activities as reinforcements in polymer composites. The benefits of using waste materials in polymer composites include, but are not limited to, reducing pollution and greenhouse gas (CO2 and CH4) emissions, minimising landfills, reducing climate change, carbon footprint and ecological risk to the natural ecosystem, reducing energy consumption, and promoting sustainability. Sustainable natural and industrial waste-based polymer composites could stand out to be the leading next-generation engineering materials, with their customizable manufacturing flexibility, low cost, renewability, high strength, biodegradability, good fire resistance and chemical and thermal endurance properties, while also being eco-friendly and energy efficient.

This Special Issue considers the recent advances in the research and development of waste-based polymer composites: processing, characterization and applications. It is our pleasure to invite materials scientists, polymer science engineers, chemical engineers and researchers in related fields of engineering and technology to submit original research papers, reviews and short communications covering (but not limited to) the following topics:

  • Industrial waste from mills, chemical and food industries, mining operations, textile industry, etc., in polymer composites;
  • Municipal solid waste such as animals and human residues or inorganic solid residues include plastic, packages, rubber, glass, construction and demolition wastes in polymer composites;
  • Agricultural waste, including manure from livestock operations, crop residues in the farm and other wastes from poultry houses and slaughterhouses, etc., in polymer composites;
  • End-of-life part/component reprocessed solid waste from aerospace, automotive, marine, sport industries, etc., in polymer composites.

Dr. Ing Kong
Dr. Kim Yeow Tshai
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymer composites
  • industrial waste
  • municipal solid waste
  • agricultural waste
  • processing, characterization and applications
  • recycling

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

23 pages, 9040 KiB  
Article
Degradation of Structurally Modified Polylactide under the Controlled Composting of Food Waste
by Elena Trofimchuk, Valeria Ostrikova, Olga Ivanova, Marina Moskvina, Anna Plutalova, Tatyana Grokhovskaya, Anna Shchelushkina, Alexander Efimov, Elena Chernikova, Shenghua Zhang and Vladimir Mironov
Polymers 2023, 15(19), 4017; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15194017 - 07 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1346
Abstract
The degradation of polylactide (PLA) films of different structures under conditions of controlled composting has been studied. We have demonstrated that PLA underwent degradation within one month in a substrate that simulated standard industrial composting. Regardless of the initial structure of the samples, [...] Read more.
The degradation of polylactide (PLA) films of different structures under conditions of controlled composting has been studied. We have demonstrated that PLA underwent degradation within one month in a substrate that simulated standard industrial composting. Regardless of the initial structure of the samples, the number-average molecular weight (Mn) decreased to 4 kDa while the degree of crystallinity increased to about 70% after 21 days of composting. Addition of an inoculant to the standard substrate resulted in the accelerated degradation of the PLA samples for one week due to an abiotic hydrolysis. These findings have confirmed that industrial composting could solve the problem of plastic disposal at least for PLA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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15 pages, 12358 KiB  
Article
Morphological, Spectroscopic and Thermal Analysis of Cellulose Nanocrystals Extracted from Waste Jute Fiber by Acid Hydrolysis
by Md. Sohel Rana, Md. Abdur Rahim, Md. Pervez Mosharraf, Md. Fazlul Karim Tipu, Jakir Ahmed Chowdhury, Mohammad Rashedul Haque, Shaila Kabir, Md. Shah Amran and Abu Asad Chowdhury
Polymers 2023, 15(6), 1530; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061530 - 20 Mar 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2532
Abstract
Natural cellulose, a sustainable bioresource, is highly abundant in nature. Cellulosic materials, particularly those that explore and employ such materials for industrial use, have recently attracted significant global attention in the field of material science because of the unique properties of cellulose. The [...] Read more.
Natural cellulose, a sustainable bioresource, is highly abundant in nature. Cellulosic materials, particularly those that explore and employ such materials for industrial use, have recently attracted significant global attention in the field of material science because of the unique properties of cellulose. The hydroxyl groups enable the formation of intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonding and the arrangement of cellulose chains in a highly ordered crystalline zone, with the remaining disordered structure referred to as an amorphous region. The crystalline areas of cellulose are well-known as cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). In the present study, we extracted CNCs from pure cellulose isolated from waste jute fibers by sulfuric acid hydrolysis, followed by characterization. Pure cellulose was isolated from jute fibers by treating with sodium hydroxide (20% w/w) and anthraquinone (0.5%) solution at 170 °C for 2 h, followed by bleaching with chlorine dioxide and hydrogen peroxide solution. CNCs were isolated from pure cellulose by treating with different concentrations (58% to 62%) of sulfuric acid at different time intervals (20 min to 45 min). The FTIR study of the CNCs reveals no peak at 1738 cm−1, which confirms the absence of hemicellulose in the samples. The CNCs obtained after 45 min of acid hydrolysis are rod-shaped, having an average length of 800 ± 100 nm and width of 55 ± 10 nm, with a high crystallinity index (90%). Zeta potential significantly increased due to the attachment of SO42− ions on the surface of CNC from −1.0 mV to about −30 mV, with the increment of the reaction time from 20 min to 45 min, which proved the higher stability of CNC suspension. Crystallinity increased from 80% to 90% when the reaction time was increased from 20 to 45 min, respectively, while a crystallite size from 2.705 to 4.56 nm was obtained with an increment of the acid concentration. Acid hydrolysis enhanced crystallinity but attenuated the temperature corresponding to major decomposition (Tmax) at 260 °C and the beginning of degradation (Ti) at 200 °C due to the attachment of SO42− ions on the surface, which decreased the thermal stability of CNC. The second degradation at 360 °C indicated the stable crystal structure of CNC. The endothermic peak at 255 °C in the DTA study provided evidence of sulfated nanocrystal decomposition and the recrystallization of cellulose I to cellulose II, the most stable structure among the other four celluloses. The proposed easy-to-reproduce method can successfully and efficiently produce CNCs from waste jute fibers in a straightforward way. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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17 pages, 5421 KiB  
Article
Development of Biodegradable Composites Using Polycaprolactone and Bamboo Powder
by Satya Guha Nukala, Ing Kong, Vipulkumar Ishvarbhai Patel, Akesh Babu Kakarla, Wei Kong and Oliver Buddrick
Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4169; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194169 - 04 Oct 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2302
Abstract
The use of biodegradable polymers in daily life is increasing to reduce environmental hazards. In line with this, the present study aimed to develop a fully biodegradable polymer composite that was environmentally friendly and exhibited promising mechanical and thermal properties. Bamboo powder (BP)-reinforced [...] Read more.
The use of biodegradable polymers in daily life is increasing to reduce environmental hazards. In line with this, the present study aimed to develop a fully biodegradable polymer composite that was environmentally friendly and exhibited promising mechanical and thermal properties. Bamboo powder (BP)-reinforced polycaprolactone (PCL) composites were prepared using the solvent casting method. The influence of BP content on the morphology, wettability, and mechanical and thermal properties of the neat matrix was evaluated. In addition, the degradation properties of the composites were analysed through soil burial and acidic degradation tests. It was revealed that BP contents had an evident influence on the properties of the composites. The increase in the BP content has significantly improved the tensile strength of the PCL matrix. A similar trend is observed for thermal stability. Scanning electron micrographs demonstrated uniform dispersion of the BP in the PCL matrix. The degradation tests revealed that the biocomposites with 40 wt·% of BP degraded by more than 20% within 4 weeks in the acidic degradation test and more than 5% in the soil burial degradation test. It was noticed that there was a considerable difference in the degradation between the PCL matrix and the biocomposites of PCL and BP. These results suggest that biodegradable composites could be a promising alternative material to the existing synthetic polymer composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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18 pages, 4454 KiB  
Article
Development of a New Additive Based on Textile Fibers of End-of-Life Tires (ELT) for Sustainable Asphalt Mixtures with Improved Mechanical Properties
by Gonzalo Valdés-Vidal, Alejandra Calabi-Floody, Carla Duarte-Nass, Cristian Mignolet and Cristian Díaz
Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3250; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163250 - 10 Aug 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2328
Abstract
End-of-life tires (ELT) are a worldwide problem. Rubber, steel, and different textile fibers are the by-products of ELT. Unlike rubber and steel, waste tire textile fibers (WTTF) are disposed of in landfills or burned. This study developed an additive made with WTTF to [...] Read more.
End-of-life tires (ELT) are a worldwide problem. Rubber, steel, and different textile fibers are the by-products of ELT. Unlike rubber and steel, waste tire textile fibers (WTTF) are disposed of in landfills or burned. This study developed an additive made with WTTF to be incorporated into conventional hot mix asphalt (HMA), and its performance properties were evaluated. First, a characterization of the WTTF used was made and a manufacture protocol was established. Then, a reference HMA was designed and mixtures with different addition percentages (2%, 5% and 8%) of the WTTF-based additive were evaluated. The mechanical properties studied were stiffness modulus, moisture susceptibility, rutting resistance, stripping, and cracking resistance. The results indicated that the addition of the 2% and 5% WTTF-based additive improved these performance properties. Moreover, all addition percentages of the WTTF-based additive evaluated demonstrated a decrease of over 29% in permanent deformation according to the Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test. Thus, the use of the WTTF would not only be valuing a waste, but an asphalt mixture with improved properties would be obtained, contributing to the circular economy by reusing a material and prolonging the useful life of the asphalt mixture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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18 pages, 4914 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Characterisation of Wood Polymer Composites Using Sustainable Raw Materials
by Satya Guha Nukala, Ing Kong, Akesh Babu Kakarla, Kim Yeow Tshai and Win Kong
Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3183; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153183 - 04 Aug 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3214
Abstract
In recent years, composites consisting of polymers and cellulosic materials have attracted increasing research attention. Polypropylene (PP) is among the most common polymer types found in excavated waste from landfills. Moreover, wood waste generated from wood products manufacturing such as sawdust (SD) offers [...] Read more.
In recent years, composites consisting of polymers and cellulosic materials have attracted increasing research attention. Polypropylene (PP) is among the most common polymer types found in excavated waste from landfills. Moreover, wood waste generated from wood products manufacturing such as sawdust (SD) offers a good potential for the fabrication of composite materials, and it is readily available in the environment. In this paper, wood polymer composites (WPC) consisting of recycled PP (rPP) and (SD) were prepared and characterised. A range of mechanical properties, including tensile strength, flexural properties, creep and hardness were studied, along with morphology, thermal properties, water degradation and contact angle. The results showed that the mechanical and thermal properties of rPP increased with an increase in 40 wt% of the SD content. Furthermore, the SD content significantly influenced the water uptake of the composites. Time–temperature superposition (TTS) was applied to predict the long-term mechanical performance from short-term accelerated creep tests at a range of elevated temperatures. The short-term creep test showed efficient homogeneity between the fillers and matrix with increasing temperature. The produced wood polymer composites displayed a comparable physical property to virgin polymer and wood and could potentially be used for various structural materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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Review

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16 pages, 1331 KiB  
Review
Vegetable Cellulose Fibers in Natural Rubber Composites
by Elizabeth R. Lozada, Carlos M. Gutiérrez Aguilar, Jaime A. Jaramillo Carvalho, Juan C. Sánchez and Giovanni Barrera Torres
Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2914; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132914 - 30 Jun 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2717
Abstract
In the last decade, natural fibers have had a significant impact on the research and development of innovative composites made with natural rubber, improving their properties over those of their counterparts that incorporate polluting synthetic fibers. In recent years, this fact has stimulated [...] Read more.
In the last decade, natural fibers have had a significant impact on the research and development of innovative composites made with natural rubber, improving their properties over those of their counterparts that incorporate polluting synthetic fibers. In recent years, this fact has stimulated the research into several modified natural rubber composites reinforced with vegetable fibers. This paper reviews the scientific literature published in the last decade about the properties and characteristics of natural vegetable fibers and natural rubber used in composites. Nowadays the use of alternative materials has become necessary, considering that synthetic materials have caused irreversible damage to the environment, being associated with global warming, for this reason research and development with materials that print a lower carbon footprint during the manufacturing process and subsequent product manufacturing. This review is an invitation to the use of vegetable fibers, as well as vegetable-type matrices, in this case natural rubber as a binder system, it is fantastic to know the different works carried out by other scientists and engineers, in this way to project new compounds linked to innovation in processes that reduce the carbon footprint and its negative impact on our planet. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Industrial Waste Based Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Applications)
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