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Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (23 September 2022) | Viewed by 16668

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xianguo Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
Interests: reservoir geology; seismic sedimentology; tight reservoir prediction; remaining oil prediction; reservoir architecture

Dr. Hongliu Zeng

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Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin 78712, TX, USA
Interests: sequence stratigraphy; seismic sedimentology

Dr. Muhammad Jawad Munawar

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Institute of geology, University of the Punjab, Lahore 05422, Pakistan
Interests: digital rocks; X-ray microcopy; sedimentology; reservoir characterization; mineralogy

Dr. Tao Zhang

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Guest Editor

College of Earth Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
Interests: well logging geology; reservoir geological evaluation

Dr. Youjing Wang

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Guest Editor

Petrochina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: reservoir characterization; reservoir geology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Oil and gas exploration has led to the development of complex reservoirs. Low-permeability, tight sandstone, fractured-reservoir, fractured and vuggy carbonate reservoirs as well as shale oil and gas reservoirs and other complex reservoirs have recently become the main object of research in this field. These complex reservoirs all share the characteristic of strong heterogeneity. The heterogeneity of reservoir geological characteristics not only prevents the accumulation and uneven distribution of oil and gas in the shallow crust but also complicates oil and gas seepage, thus controlling the uneven distribution of remaining oil.

The study of reservoir geology and reservoir characterization is an effective means to understand reservoir heterogeneity, which is of great significance to the development of a strong scientific knowledge base of complex oil and gas reservoirs. Moreover, reservoir heterogeneity is manifested in many aspects, such as the reservoir’s physical properties, diagenesis characteristics, distribution of sand body and lithofacies, and so on.

Due to the research requirements of complex oil and gas reservoirs, this area poses new challenges to the study of reservoir geology and reservoir characterization. However, the advancement of geology, applied geophysics, artificial intelligence and other related disciplines has led to new theories and methods that can be similarly applied in reservoir geology research. Thus, a platform to exchange and discuss this new knowledge and the future of reservoir geology is urgently needed, which is the aim of this Special Issue.

Our focus in this Special Issue includes formation mechanisms, characterization methods, distribution law, control factors and other issues of reservoir heterogeneity as well as a discussion on scientific and technical issues related to reservoir geological characteristics. Altogether, we will investigate new problems and new challenges and present new, exciting opportunities for this field.

We look forward to your contributions to this Special Issue.

Dr. Xianguo Zhang
Dr. Hongliu Zeng
Dr. Muhammad Jawad Munawar
Dr. Tao Zhang
Dr. Youjing Wang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

reservoir architecture
reservoir heterogeneity
tight sandstone
sedimentary facies
diagenesis facies
pore structure
reservoir modeling
reservoir evaluation
remaining oil prediction

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 2986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The High-Pressure Methane/Brine/Quartz Contact Angle and Its Influence on Gas Reservoir Capillaries

by Hua Tian, Junjia Fan, Zhichao Yu, Qiang Liu and Xuesong Lu

Minerals 2023, 13(2), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13020164 - 23 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2727

Abstract

A capillary high-pressure optical cell (HPOC) combined with a confocal Raman system was used in this study of high-pressure methane/brine contact angles on a quartz surface. The contact angle was determined from the shape of the methane/brine/quartz interface; it increased with fluid pressure from 41° to 49° over a pressure range of 5.7–69.4 MPa. A linear relationship between the contact angle and the Raman shift was also observed. The experimentally measured contact angle was more accurately applied in calculations of capillary resistance than the empirically estimated 0°, and it provides an important parameter in the study of gas migration and production processes. For a natural gas reservoir, pore-throat capillary resistance was 33% lower than the traditionally accepted value, and low capillary resistance is conducive to deeply buried tight gas reservoirs becoming more gas saturated. As burial depth increases, capillary resistance initially decreases and passes through a maximum before decreasing again, rather than increasing linearly with depth. Our results provide critical parameters for gas reservoir production, modeling, and resource assessment. This non-destructive method may be useful for predicting contact angles through measurement of the Raman shift of the HPOC and fluid inclusions in the reservoir. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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18 pages, 20243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Multiple-Point Geostatistical Modeling Method and Application Based on Braided River Reservoir Architecture

by Mengjiao Dou, Shaohua Li, Tao Lei, Guanglei Ren, Xiaohui Li, Ying Guo, Wenjie Feng and Xianghui Zhang

Minerals 2022, 12(11), 1398; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12111398 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1213

Abstract

The Lower Shihezi Formation of the Daniudi gas field in the Ordos Basin is a typical reservoir of a braided river system in an alluvial plain, characterized by extensive braided river development, parallel development from the near source to the center of the basin, and frequent interweaving and cut stacking, as well as a complex deposition process that has seen frequent river channel changes. The braided river belt, braided channel, channel bar inside the river, and interlayer within the channel bar constitute a hierarchical and complicated architectural feature, which poses a great challenge to accurately characterize this type of reservoir for modeling. We proposed a hierarchical, level-by-level embedding, and progressive multiple-point geostatistical modeling strategy that is refined layer by layer according to a 5–3 level architectural unit hierarchy, with the modeling results of each level providing constraints for the next level modeling. The hierarchical geological model based on the combination of qualitative architectural anatomy and quantitative pre-architecture unit scale is critical in guiding the efficient development of the remaining gas in the braided river reservoir in Daniudi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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18 pages, 9075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Facies Modeling of Tight Sandstone Reservoir Using Multi-Point Geostatistics Method Based on 2D Training Image—Case Study of Longdong Area, Ordos Basin, China

by Naidan Zhang, Shaohua Li, Lunjie Chang, Chao Wang, Jun Li and Bo Liang

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101335 - 21 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2112

Abstract

The Longdong area in the Ordos basin is a typical fluvial reservoir with strong heterogeneity. In order to clarify the distribution law of underground reservoirs in the Longdong area, it is necessary to establish and optimize a 3D geological model to characterize the heterogeneity of reservoirs. This is of great significance for accelerating the exploitation of tight sandstone gas in the southwest of the Ordos basin. This study takes the P₂h₈ member of the Ct3 research area in the Longdong area as an example, analyzes the core and logging curve shape to divide the sedimentary microfacies, and establishes the facies model. In particular, in view of the difficulty in obtaining 3D training images under the existing conditions in the study area, we use the multi-point geostatistics method combining sequential two-dimensional condition simulation and the direct sampling method to establish the facies model. This method can simulate the 3D geological model by using the 2D training images composed of the digital plane facies diagrams and the well-connection facies diagrams. In addition, we choose the object-based method and sequential indicator method for comparative experiments to verify the feasibility of this method (sequential two-dimensional condition simulation combined with the direct sampling method) from many aspects. The results show that the multi-point geostatistics method based on 2D training images can not only match the well data, but also show the geometric characteristics and contact relationship of the simulation object. The distribution characteristics of sandbody thickness and modeling results are consistent with the actual geological conditions in the study area. This study explores the feasibility of this method in the 3D geological simulation of large-scale fluvial facies tight sandstone reservoirs. Additionally, it also provides a new idea and scheme for the modeling method of geologists in similar geological environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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14 pages, 13353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Characterization Integrating Static and Dynamic Data for Dynamic Fractures in Ultra-Low Permeability Reservoirs: A Case Study of the Chang 6 Reservoir of the Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin, China

by Youjing Wang and Xinmin Song

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1277; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101277 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 922

Abstract

The generation of dynamic fractures during the process of water injection in ultra-low permeability reservoirs aggravates the heterogeneity of the reservoir, resulting in a rapid rise of water cut and directional flooding of the producers, which affects waterflood sweep efficiency and recovery. A dynamic fracture, as the geological feature of ultra-low permeability reservoirs, has a complex genetic mechanism and is difficult to characterize. Taking the Chang 6 reservoir of the Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin of central China as an example, this paper presents the characterization method and workflow of dynamic fractures. On the one hand, through the analysis of triaxial-compression rock-mechanic experiments and the mineral composition of the core, we evaluated rock brittleness in order to identify the lithology that can easily generate new fractures. On the other hand, beginning with the ancient tectonic stress field and combining the fracture characteristics of core and geological outcrop, the multi-fractal method and the probabilistic neural network were applied to identify the natural fractures and to quantitatively predict the intensity of natural fractures. Based on the rock brittleness evaluation and the natural fracture feature, the intensity of dynamic fractures was characterized by integrating the analysis of the bottom hole pressure, fracture pressure, and production response characteristics. A dynamic fracture is a “double-edged sword” during the waterflooding development of ultra-low permeability reservoirs. The premature activation and generation of dynamic fractures could lead to a worse development status. Nevertheless, the rational control and utilization of dynamic fractures play a positive role in improving oil recovery. Dynamic fractures are of great significance to the optimization and adjustment of well patterns for ultra-low permeability reservoirs. This can provide a reference for similar reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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42 pages, 13778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Reservoir Pore-Throat Structure Heterogeneity on Water-Flooding Seepage: A Case Study of Yanchang Formation in Ordos Basin

by Qiang Tong, Dongbo He, Zhaohui Xia, Jixin Huang, Kaixiang Di, Fang Xu and Songwei Guo

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1243; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101243 - 29 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1143

Abstract

The microscopic pore-throat structure of low-porosity and ultralow permeability sandstone reservoirs controls the seepage characteristics, which directly affects the water injection development efficiency of oilfields. Different from typical tight sandstone reservoirs, macropores and mesopores are more developed in the pore-throat structure of this type of reservoir, which changes the dominance of micropores over seepage capacity. Based on the full-range pore-throat structure characterization method and fractal theory, many experimental methods are used to study the influence of the microscopic pore-throat structure over the seepage characteristics in the Chang 9 reservoir in the Yanchang Formation of the Ordos Basin. The results of 12 typical samples show that the pore-throat structure has multifractal characteristics, and the occurrence degree of movable fluid and seepage capacity vary greatly, showing strong microscopic heterogeneity. Following characterization of the full-range pore-throat structure, the relative proportion of macropores and mesopores determines the physical properties of the reservoir. The pore-throat scale and structural heterogeneity have a significant impact on porosity, while the pore-throat structure connectivity has a crucial impact on permeability. Quartz provides resistance to compaction and preserves more primary pores. Additionally, the relationship between clay minerals and physical properties is not significant. Only illite and I/S mixed layers have a slight effect on permeability reduction. Furthermore, laumontite cementation is the key factor in the destruction of the pore-throat structure. Porosity has a significant effect on movable fluid occurrence and is more closely related to the two-phase seepage. Permeability controls the oil displacement efficiency in the anhydrous period, and porosity controls the oil displacement efficiency in the final period. The fractal dimension has some significant controls on the pore-throat structure, which are reflected in the fact that the higher the homogeneity of macropores is and the higher the heterogeneity of mesopores and micropores is, the better the reservoir development will be. In particular, the degree of macropore development guarantees reservoir quality. The control of the fractal dimension on the seepage capacity is complex, especially for mesopores and micropores; the higher the degree of heterogeneity is, the stronger the seepage capacity will be. The occurrence of movable fluid is significantly affected by the scale and heterogeneity of the pore-throat structure, which is reflected as stronger heterogeneity of the pore-throat structure and poorer relative seepage capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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32 pages, 8657 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustic Dispersion in Low Permeability Unconventional Reservoir Rocks and Shales at In Situ Stress Conditions

by Sheyore John Omovie, Mike Myers and John P. Castagna

Minerals 2022, 12(10), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12101180 - 20 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1223

Abstract

Utilizing laboratory measurements on dry and fully brine-saturated well-lithified shale reservoir rocks and comparing them to log data and theoretical modeling, we find no statistically significant intrinsic dispersion from seismic to sonic and laboratory measurement frequencies due to fluid effects. Under in situ stress conditions, the Gassmann zero-frequency P-wave velocity prediction for a Permian basin sample was within 0.3% of the measured velocity on the brine-saturated sample at an ultrasonic frequency. At deviatoric stresses ranging from 1.7 to 70 MPa on the same sample, the percent error in the Gassmann P-wave velocity prediction ranges from 0.3 to 2.2%. These results are consistent with the lack of significant dispersion in the reported velocities and theoretical predictions in the Cotton Valley shale. Based on the Biot–Gassmann model, the characteristic frequency in both formations occurs at ~10¹⁰ Hz. Applying a squirt flow model also predicts transition to the high-frequency regime occurring at ~10⁹ Hz for both formations. The comparison of the sonic log measurements for four different shale/tight rock formations to ultrasonic measurements taken from core samples under in situ stress conditions confirms these findings. To our knowledge, this is the first extensive comparison of the sonic log to ultrasonic core data measurements. For these rocks, there is no clearly observable or predicted significant dispersion due to fluid effects at in situ stress conditions within the frequency range for which measurements are made. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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17 pages, 11176 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modeling Approach for Beach-Bar Sand Reservoirs Based on Depositional Mode and Sandbody Volume

by Wanbing Li, Shaohua Li, Quangong Qu, Huafeng Zhang, Junying Zhao and Mengjiao Dou

Minerals 2022, 12(8), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12080950 - 28 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

Beach-bar sand in lacustrine facies represents one of the most significant reservoirs. Depending on the depositional characteristics, it can be further divided into two different sedimentary microfacies, beach sand and the bar sand. Favorable reservoirs are often developed in bar sand. The lower section of the upper part of the 4th member of the Shahejie Formation in the Gao89-1 block is a typical nearshore shallow water beach-bar deposit. Oil distribution is influenced by lithofacies and physical properties. In order to better characterize the heterogeneity within beach-bar sandbodies, a modeling method based on the depositional mode and sandbody volume is proposed. Firstly, a sandbody model is established. On this basis, an algorithm for distinguishing between beach and bar sand based on vertical thickness is proposed. The model is post processed based on the sandbody volume to remove unreasonable sandbodies. The method allows for a more realistic three-dimensional geological model of the beach-bar sands in the study area than the classical two-point geostatistical, object-based, and multi-point simulation method. A facies-controlled modeling approach is used to establish a petrophysical property model on this foundation; the result shows that the property models better reflect the characteristics of the petrophysical distribution in the Gao89-1 block. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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22 pages, 20380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Diagenetic Facies Logging of Tight Oil Reservoirs Based on Deep Learning—A Case Study in the Permian Lucaogou Formation of the Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin

by Ming Qi, Changcheng Han, Cunfei Ma, Geng Liu, Xudong He, Guan Li, Yi Yang, Ruyuan Sun and Xuhui Cheng

Minerals 2022, 12(7), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070913 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1318

Abstract

As a typical tight oil reservoir in a lake basin, the Permian Lucaogou Formation of the Jimsar Sag in the Junggar Basin has great potential for exploration and development. However, at present, there are few studies on the identification of the diagenetic facies of tight oil reservoir logging in the study area, and the control effect of diagenesis on tight oil reservoirs is not clear. The present work investigates the diagenesis and diagenetic facies logging of the study area, making full use of core data, thin sections, and logs, among other data, in order to understand the reservoir characteristics of the Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag. The results show that the Lucaogou Formation has undergone diagenetic activity such as compaction, carbonate cementation, quartz cementation, and clay mineral infilling and dissolution. The diagenetic facies are classified according to mineral and diagenetic type, namely, tightly compacted facies, carbonate-cemented facies, clay mineral-filling facies, quartz-cemented facies, and dissolution facies. The GR, RT, AC, DEN, and CNL logging curves were selected, among others, and the convolutional neural network was introduced to construct a diagenetic facies logging recognition model. The diagenetic facies of a single well was divided and identified, and the predicted diagenetic facies types were compared with thin sections and SEM images of the corresponding depths. Prediction results had a high coincidence rate, which indicates that the model is of a certain significance to accurately identify the diagenetic facies of tight oil reservoirs. Assessing the physical properties of the studied reservoirs, dissolution facies are the dominant diagenetic facies in the study area and are also the preferred sequence for exploration—to find dominant reservoirs in the following stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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19 pages, 12802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Sedimentary Architecture of Sandy Braided River, Based on Outcrop, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and Ground Penetrating Radar Data

by Wei Guo, Chunmei Dong, Chengyan Lin, Tao Zhang, Zhongxiang Zhao and Jia Li

Minerals 2022, 12(6), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12060739 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2214

Abstract

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses antennas to transmit and receive high-frequency electromagnetic waves to detect the properties and distribution of materials in media. In this paper, geological observation, UAV detection and GPR technology are combined to study the recent sediments of the Yungang braided river study area in Datong. The application of the GPR technique to the description of fluvial facies and reservoir architecture and the development of geological models are discussed. The process of GPR detection technology and application includes three parts: GPR data acquisition, data processing and integrated interpretation of GPR data. The geological surface at different depths and scales can be identified by using different combinations of frequencies and antenna configurations during acquisition. Based on outcrop observation and lithofacies analysis, the Yandong Member of the Middle Jurassic Yungang Formation in the Datong Basin has been identified as a typical sandy braided river sedimentary system. The sandy braided river sandbody changes rapidly laterally, and the spatial distribution and internal structure of the reservoir are very complex, which has a very important impact on the migration and distribution of oil and gas as a reservoir. It is very important to make clear the characteristics of each architectural unit of the fluvial sand body and quantitatively characterize them. The architectural elements of the braided river sedimentary reservoir in the Datong-Yungang area can be divided into three types: Channel unit, bar unit and overbank assemblages. The geological radar response characteristics of different types of sedimentary units are summarized and their interfaces are identified. The channel sediments form a lens-shaped wave reflection with a flat at the top and convex-down at the bottom in the radar profile, and the angles of the radar reflection directional axes are different on both sides of the sedimentary interface. In the radar profile, the deposit of the unit bar is an upward convex reflection structure. The overbank siltation shows a weak amplitude parallel reflection structure. The flood plain sediments are distributed continuously and stably in the radar profile, showing weak reflection characteristics. Different sedimentary units are identified by GPR data and combined with Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) detection data, and the establishment of the field outcrop geological model is completed. The development pattern of the diara is clarified, and the swing and migration of the channel in different stages are identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reservoir Geology and Oil & Gas Reservoir Characterization)

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