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Micromachines
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Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition
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Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition

A special issue of Micromachines (ISSN 2072-666X). This special issue belongs to the section "A：Physics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2023) | Viewed by 17503

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Qiongfeng Shi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
Interests: flexible electronics; energy harvesting; self-powered sensing; human–machine interfaces; MEMS; intelligent systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Huicong Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
Interests: sensors; energy harvesting; piezoelectricity; MEMS
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, we have witnessed the revolutionary innovation and flourishing development of the Internet of Things (IoT), which will increase even more with the gradual rollout of the fifth generation (5G) wireless network across the world. Enabled by the ultrahigh-speed data communication capability of 5G, various IoT systems can be envisioned by linking numerous interrelated electronic devices together in an integrated and interconnected network, such as smart factory, unmanned shop, smart home, or wearable body network. Within these complicated and widely distributed systems, energy supply in the IoT era is gradually migrating from the centralized and ordered supply mode towards mobile and in situ supply. Compared to current battery technology, energy harvesting technologies that scavenge available energies from the ambient surroundings show great merits as an energy supply, e.g., extended and unlimited lifetime, high portability, flexible/stretchable compatibility, and the ability to develop sustainability. Recently, different energy harvesting technologies have undergone significant innovation, providing key functionalities in diversified systems such as energy harvesters and self-powered sensors. Accordingly, this Special Issue seeks to showcase research papers and review articles that are focused on advanced developments for the design, fabrication, integration, and application of energy harvesting technologies, with particular interests in energy harvesters, nanogenerators, self-powered sensors and systems.

Dr. Qiongfeng Shi
Prof. Dr. Huicong Liu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Micromachines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • energy harvesters
  • nanogenerators
  • self-powered sensors
  • smart electronics
  • internet of things

Related Special Issues

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 186 KiB  
Editorial
Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition
by Qiongfeng Shi and Huicong Liu
Micromachines 2024, 15(1), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15010099 - 04 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1037
Abstract
With the worldwide rollout of the 5G communication network and 6G around the corner, we have witnessed the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT) technology, enabling big data and digital transformation in various fields [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)

Research

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18 pages, 8379 KiB  
Article
Investigation of a Novel Ultra-Low-Frequency Rotational Energy Harvester Based on a Double-Frequency Up-Conversion Mechanism
by Ning Li, Hu Xia, Chun Yang, Tao Luo and Lifeng Qin
Micromachines 2023, 14(8), 1645; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14081645 - 20 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1310
Abstract
Due to their lack of pollution and long replacement cycles, piezoelectric energy harvesters have gained increasing attention as emerging power generation devices. However, achieving effective energy harvesting in ultra-low-frequency (<1 Hz) rotational environments remains a challenge. Therefore, a novel rotational energy harvester (REH) [...] Read more.
Due to their lack of pollution and long replacement cycles, piezoelectric energy harvesters have gained increasing attention as emerging power generation devices. However, achieving effective energy harvesting in ultra-low-frequency (<1 Hz) rotational environments remains a challenge. Therefore, a novel rotational energy harvester (REH) with a double-frequency up-conversion mechanism was proposed in this study. It consisted of a hollow cylindrical shell with multiple piezoelectric beams and a ring-shaped slider with multiple paddles. During operation, the relative rotation between the slider and the shell induced the paddles on the slider to strike the piezoelectric beams inside the shell, thereby causing the piezoelectric beams to undergo self-excited oscillation and converting mechanical energy into electrical energy through the piezoelectric effect. Additionally, by adjusting the number of paddles and piezoelectric beams, the frequency of the piezoelectric beam struck by the paddles within one rotation cycle could be increased, further enhancing the output performance of the REH. To validate the output performance of the proposed REH, a prototype was fabricated, and the relationship between the device’s output performance and parameters such as the number of paddles, system rotation speed, and device installation eccentricity was studied. The results showed that the designed REH achieved a single piezoelectric beam output power of up to 2.268 mW, while the REH with three piezoelectric beams reached an output power of 5.392 mW, with a high power density of 4.02 μW/(cm3 Hz) under a rotational excitation of 0.42 Hz, demonstrating excellent energy-harvesting characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 6026 KiB  
Article
Self-Sustainable IoT-Based Remote Sensing Powered by Energy Harvesting Using Stacked Piezoelectric Transducer and Thermoelectric Generator
by Wasim Dipon, Bryan Gamboa, Maximilian Estrada, William Paul Flynn, Ruyan Guo and Amar Bhalla
Micromachines 2023, 14(7), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14071428 - 15 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 995
Abstract
We propose a self-powered remote multi-sensing system for traffic sensing which is powered by the collective energy harvested from the mechanical vibration of the road caused by the passing vehicles and from the temperature gradient between the asphalt of the road and the [...] Read more.
We propose a self-powered remote multi-sensing system for traffic sensing which is powered by the collective energy harvested from the mechanical vibration of the road caused by the passing vehicles and from the temperature gradient between the asphalt of the road and the soil underneath. A stacked piezoelectric transducer converts mechanical vibrations into electrical energy and a thermoelectric generator harvests the thermal energy from the thermal gradient. Electrical energy signals from the stacked piezoelectric transducer and the thermoelectric generators are converted into usable DC power to recharge the battery using AC-DC and DC-DC converters working simultaneously. The multi-sensing system comprises an embedded system with a microcontroller that acquires data from the sensors and sends the sensory data to an IoT transceiver which transmits the data as RF packets to an ethernet gateway. The gateway converts the RF packets into Internet Protocol (IP) packets and sends them to a remote server. Laboratory and road-testing results showed over 98% sensory data accuracy with the system functioning solely powered by the energy harvested from the alternative energy sources. The successful maximum transmission distance obtained between the IoT, and the gateway was approximately 1 mile, which is a considerable transmission distance achieved in an urban environment. Successful operation of the self-powered multi-sensing system under both laboratory and road conditions contributes considerably to the fields of energy harvesting and self-powered remote sensing systems. The energy flow chart and efficiency for the steps in the system were found to be mechanical power from vehicles to the energy harvester of 0.25%, stacked PZT transducer efficiency was found to be 37%, and for the TEGs the efficiency is 11%. AC-to-DC and DC-to-DC converters’ efficiencies were found to be 90% and 11%. The wireless communication RF transceiver efficiency was found to be 62.5%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 10242 KiB  
Article
Improvement of the Airflow Energy Harvester Based on the New Diamagnetic Levitation Structure
by Long Zhang, Hang Shao, Jiaxiang Zhang, Deping Liu, Kean C. Aw and Yufeng Su
Micromachines 2023, 14(7), 1374; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14071374 - 04 Jul 2023
Viewed by 887
Abstract
This paper presents an improved solution for the airflow energy harvester based on the push–pull diamagnetic levitation structure. A four-notch rotor is adopted to eliminate the offset of the floating rotor and substantially increase the energy conversion rate. The new rotor is a [...] Read more.
This paper presents an improved solution for the airflow energy harvester based on the push–pull diamagnetic levitation structure. A four-notch rotor is adopted to eliminate the offset of the floating rotor and substantially increase the energy conversion rate. The new rotor is a centrally symmetrical-shaped magnet, which ensures that it is not subjected to cyclically varying unbalanced radial forces, thus avoiding the rotor’s offset. Considering the output voltage and power of several types of rotors, the four-notch rotor was found to be optimal. Furthermore, with the four-notch rotor, the overall average increase in axial magnetic spring stiffness is 9.666% and the average increase in maximum monostable levitation space is 1.67%, but the horizontal recovery force is reduced by 3.97%. The experimental results show that at an airflow rate of 3000 sccm, the peak voltage and rotation speed of the four-notch rotor are 2.709 V and 21,367 rpm, respectively, which are 40.80% and 5.99% higher compared to the three-notch rotor. The experimental results were consistent with the analytical simulation. Based on the improvement, the energy conversion factor of the airflow energy harvester increased to 0.127 mV/rpm, the output power increased to 138.47 mW and the energy conversion rate increased to 58.14%, while the trend of the levitation characteristics also matched the simulation results. In summary, the solution proposed in this paper significantly improves the performance of the airflow energy harvester. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 1379 KiB  
Article
A 0.6 VIN 100 mV Dropout Capacitor-Less LDO with 220 nA IQ for Energy Harvesting System
by Yuting Zhang, Qianhui Ge and Yanhan Zeng
Micromachines 2023, 14(5), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14050998 - 03 May 2023
Viewed by 1457
Abstract
A fully integrated and high-efficiency low-dropout regulator (LDO) with 100 mV dropout voltage and nA-level quiescent current for energy harvesting has been proposed and simulated in the 180 nm CMOS process in this paper. A bulk modulation without an extra amplifier is proposed, [...] Read more.
A fully integrated and high-efficiency low-dropout regulator (LDO) with 100 mV dropout voltage and nA-level quiescent current for energy harvesting has been proposed and simulated in the 180 nm CMOS process in this paper. A bulk modulation without an extra amplifier is proposed, which decreases the threshold voltage, lowering the dropout voltage and supply voltage to 100 mV and 0.6 V, respectively. To ensure stability and realize low current consumption, adaptive power transistors are proposed to enable system tropology to alter between 2-stage and 3-stage. In addition, an adaptive bias with bounds is utilized in an attempt to improve the transient response. Simulation results demonstrate that the quiescent current is as low as 220 nA and the current efficiency reaches 99.958% in the full load condition, load regulation is 0.0059 mV/mA, line regulation is 0.4879 mV/V, and the optimal PSR is −51 dB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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11 pages, 5861 KiB  
Article
A Piezoelectric MEMS Speaker with a Combined Function of a Silent Alarm
by Qi Wang, Tao Ruan, Qingda Xu, Zhiyong Hu, Bin Yang, Minmin You, Zude Lin and Jingquan Liu
Micromachines 2023, 14(3), 702; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14030702 - 22 Mar 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2014
Abstract
To explore the versatility of speakers, a piezoelectric micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) speaker combining the function of a silent alarm is proposed, which mainly comprises a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) actuation layer and a rigid–flexible coupling supporting layer. Measurements performed on encapsulated prototypes mounted [...] Read more.
To explore the versatility of speakers, a piezoelectric micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) speaker combining the function of a silent alarm is proposed, which mainly comprises a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) actuation layer and a rigid–flexible coupling supporting layer. Measurements performed on encapsulated prototypes mounted to an artificial ear simulator have revealed that, compared to a speaker with a rigid supporting layer, the sound pressure level (SPL) of the proposed piezoelectric MEMS speaker with a rigid–flexible coupling supporting layer is significantly higher and is especially higher by 4.1–20.1 dB in the frequency range from 20 Hz to 4.2 kHz, indicating that the rigid–flexible coupling supporting layer can improve the SPL significantly in low frequency. Moreover, the spectral distribution characteristic of its playback audio is similar to that of the commercial electromagnetic type. The device can also function as a silent alarm based on oral airflows in dangerous situations, as it performs well at recognizing words according to their unique voltage-signal characteristics, and can avoid the effects of external sound noise, body movement, long distance, and occlusion. This strategy provides inspiration for functional diversification of piezoelectric MEMS speakers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 8562 KiB  
Article
CMOS Radio Frequency Energy Harvester (RFEH) with Fully On-Chip Tunable Voltage-Booster for Wideband Sensitivity Enhancement
by Yizhi Li, Jagadheswaran Rajendran, Selvakumar Mariappan, Arvind Singh Rawat, Sofiyah Sal Hamid, Narendra Kumar, Masuri Othman and Arokia Nathan
Micromachines 2023, 14(2), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14020392 - 04 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1815
Abstract
Radio frequency energy harvesting (RFEH) is one form of renewable energy harvesting currently seeing widespread popularity because many wireless electronic devices can coordinate their communications via RFEH, especially in CMOS technology. For RFEH, the sensitivity of detecting low-power ambient RF signals is the [...] Read more.
Radio frequency energy harvesting (RFEH) is one form of renewable energy harvesting currently seeing widespread popularity because many wireless electronic devices can coordinate their communications via RFEH, especially in CMOS technology. For RFEH, the sensitivity of detecting low-power ambient RF signals is the utmost priority. The voltage boosting mechanisms at the input of the RFEH are typically applied to enhance its sensitivity. However, the bandwidth in which its sensitivity is maintained is very poor. This work implements a tunable voltage boosting (TVB) mechanism fully on-chip in a 3-stage cross-coupled differential drive rectifier (CCDD). The TVB is designed with an interleaved transformer architecture where the primary winding is implemented to the rectifier, while the secondary winding is connected to a MOSFET switch that tunes the inductance of the network. The TVB enables the sensitivity of the rectifier to be maintained at 1V DC output voltage with a minimum deviation of −2 dBm across a wide bandwidth of 3 to 6 GHz of 5G New Radio frequency (5GNR) bands. A DC output voltage of 1 V and a peak PCE of 83% at 3 GHz for −23 dBm input power are achieved. A PCE of more than 50% can be maintained at the sensitivity point of 1 V with the aid of TVB. The proposed CCDD-TVB mechanism enables the CMOS RFEH to be operated for wideband applications with optimum sensitivity, DC output voltage, and efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 45151 KiB  
Article
A 53-µA-Quiescent 400-mA Load Demultiplexer Based CMOS Multi-Voltage Domain Low Dropout Regulator for RF Energy Harvester
by Balamahesn Poongan, Jagadheswaran Rajendran, Li Yizhi, Selvakumar Mariappan, Pharveen Parameswaran, Narendra Kumar, Masuri Othman and Arokia Nathan
Micromachines 2023, 14(2), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14020379 - 02 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1659
Abstract
A low-power capacitorless demultiplexer-based multi-voltage domain low-dropout regulator (MVD-LDO) with 180 nm CMOS technology is proposed in this work. The MVD-LDO has a 1.5 V supply voltage headroom and regulates an output from four voltage domains ranging from 0.8 V to 1.4 V, [...] Read more.
A low-power capacitorless demultiplexer-based multi-voltage domain low-dropout regulator (MVD-LDO) with 180 nm CMOS technology is proposed in this work. The MVD-LDO has a 1.5 V supply voltage headroom and regulates an output from four voltage domains ranging from 0.8 V to 1.4 V, with a high current efficiency of 99.98% with quiescent current of 53 µA with the aid of an integrated low-power demultiplexer controller which consumes only 68.85 pW. The fabricated chip has an area of 0.149 mm2 and can deliver up to 400 mA of current. The MVD-LDO’s line and load regulations are 1.85 mV/V and 0.0003 mV/mA for the low-output voltage domain and 3.53 mV/V and 0.079 mV/mA for the high-output voltage domain. The LDO consumes only 174.5 µW in standby mode, making it suitable for integrating with an RF energy harvester chip to power sensor nodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 1541 KiB  
Article
A 7.5-mV Input and 88%-Efficiency Single-Inductor Boost Converter with Self-Startup and MPPT for Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting
by Chuting Wu, Jiabao Zhang, Yuting Zhang and Yanhan Zeng
Micromachines 2023, 14(1), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14010060 - 26 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1736
Abstract
This paper presents a single-inductor boost converter for thermoelectric energy harvesting. A two-stages startup circuit with a three-phase operation is adopted to obtain self-startup with a single inductor. To extract the maximum energy, a coarse- and fine-tuning MPPT is proposed to adaptively and [...] Read more.
This paper presents a single-inductor boost converter for thermoelectric energy harvesting. A two-stages startup circuit with a three-phase operation is adopted to obtain self-startup with a single inductor. To extract the maximum energy, a coarse- and fine-tuning MPPT is proposed to adaptively and effectively track the internal source resistance. By designing a zero-current detector, the synchronization loss is reduced, which significantly improves the peak efficiency. The boost converter is implemented in a 0.18-μm standard CMOS process. Simulation results show that the converter self-starts the operation from a TEG voltage of 128 mV and achieves 88% peak efficiency, providing a maximum output power of 3.78 mW. The improved MPPT enables the converter to sustain the operation at an input voltage as low as 7.5 mV after self-startup. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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10 pages, 1495 KiB  
Article
Cluster-ID-Based Throughput Improvement in Cognitive Radio Networks for 5G and Beyond-5G IoT Applications
by Stalin Allwin Devaraj, Kambatty Bojan Gurumoorthy, Pradeep Kumar, Wilson Stalin Jacob, Prince Jenifer Darling Rosita and Tanweer Ali
Micromachines 2022, 13(9), 1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13091414 - 28 Aug 2022
Viewed by 1174
Abstract
Cognitive radio (CR), which is a common form of wireless communication, consists of a transceiver that is intelligently capable of detecting which communication channels are available to use and which are not. After this detection process, the transceiver avoids the occupied channels while [...] Read more.
Cognitive radio (CR), which is a common form of wireless communication, consists of a transceiver that is intelligently capable of detecting which communication channels are available to use and which are not. After this detection process, the transceiver avoids the occupied channels while simultaneously moving into the empty ones. Hence, spectrum shortage and underutilization are key problems that the CR can be proposed to address. In order to obtain a good idea of the spectrum usage in the area where the CRs are located, cooperative spectrum sensing (CSS) can be used. Hence, the primary objective of this research work is to increase the realizable throughput via the cluster-based cooperative spectrum sensing (CBCSS) algorithm. The proposed scheme is anticipated to acquire advanced achievable throughput for 5G and beyond-5G Internet of Things (IoT) applications. Performance parameters, such as achievable throughput, the average number of clusters and energy, have been analyzed for the proposed CBCSS and compared with optimal algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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Review

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24 pages, 4282 KiB  
Review
A Review of Converter Circuits for Ambient Micro Energy Harvesting
by Qian Lian, Peiqing Han and Niansong Mei
Micromachines 2022, 13(12), 2222; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13122222 - 14 Dec 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1929
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) has a great number of sensor nodes distributed in different environments, and the traditional approach uses batteries to power these nodes: however, the resultant huge cost of battery replacement means that the battery-powered approach is not the optimal [...] Read more.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has a great number of sensor nodes distributed in different environments, and the traditional approach uses batteries to power these nodes: however, the resultant huge cost of battery replacement means that the battery-powered approach is not the optimal solution. Micro energy harvesting offers the possibility of self-powered sensor nodes. This paper provides an overview of energy harvesting technology, and describes the methods for extracting energy from various sources, including photovoltaic, thermoelectric, piezoelectric, and RF; in addition, the characteristics of the four types of energy sources and the applicable circuit structures are summarized. This paper gives the pros and cons of the circuits, and future directions. The design challenges are the efficiency and size of the circuit. MPPT, as an important method of improving the system efficiency, is also highlighted and compared. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Harvesters and Self-Powered Sensors for Smart Electronics, 2nd Edition)
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