Editorial

6 pages, 211 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

by Karel Gryc and Jan Falkus

Metals 2020, 10(2), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10020295 - 24 Feb 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2208

Steel was the most requested material all over the world during the past fast technically evolving centuries [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

Research

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12 pages, 28775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mixing Phenomenon and Flow Field in Ladle of RH Process

by Kaitian Zhang, Heng Cui, Rudong Wang and Yang Liu

Metals 2019, 9(8), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9080886 - 14 Aug 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2939

Abstract

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) system was adopted to investigate the relationship between the mixing phenomenon and the flow field of a 210 t RH degasser by a 1:4 scale water model. The results of mixing simulation experiments indicated that the mixing time decreased [...] Read more.

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) system was adopted to investigate the relationship between the mixing phenomenon and the flow field of a 210 t RH degasser by a 1:4 scale water model. The results of mixing simulation experiments indicated that the mixing time decreased with the increase of gas blowing rate. However, with the increase of Snorkel immersion depth (SID), the mixing time presented a decreasing rend firstly and then increased. The measurement of flow fields of RH ladle by PIV system can explain the phenomenon above. According to the characteristics of the flow field in RH ladle, the flow field can be divided into the mixing layer, the transition layer, and the inactive layer. On the one hand, the stirring power in RH ladle and vacuum chamber both increases with more gas blowing rate, leading to the decrease of mixing time. On the other hand, with SID increases from 400 mm to 480 mm, the gas blowing depth increase results in the mixing power increases, and the mixing time decreases at the beginning. Because of too much-molten steel in the vacuum chamber and the expanding of the inactive layer in RH ladle, however, the utilization rate of the gas driving force begins to decrease. Therefore, the mixing time started to increases with the increase of SID. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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8 pages, 2573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reoxidation of Al-Killed Steel by Cr₂O₃ from Tundish Cover Flux

by Feng Wang, Daoxu Liu, Wei Liu, Shufeng Yang and Jingshe Li

Metals 2019, 9(5), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050554 - 12 May 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2777

Abstract

Reoxidation has long been a problem when casting ultra-low oxygen liquid steel. An experimental study of the reoxidation phenomenon caused by Cr₂O₃-bearing cover flux of Al-killed steel is presented here. MgO-CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-Cr₂O [...] Read more.

Reoxidation has long been a problem when casting ultra-low oxygen liquid steel. An experimental study of the reoxidation phenomenon caused by Cr₂O₃-bearing cover flux of Al-killed steel is presented here. MgO-CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-Cr₂O₃ tundish cover flux with various Cr₂O₃ contents were used to study the effects of Cr₂O₃ on total oxygen content (T[O]) and alumina and silicone loss of Al-killed steel at 1923 K (1650 °C). It was found that Cr₂O₃ can be reduced by Al to cause reoxidation, and the reaction occurs mainly within 2 to 3 min after the addition of the tundish cover flux with 5% and 10% Cr₂O₃ concentration. T[O] and Al loss increase with higher Cr₂O₃ concentration flux. Two controlled experiments were also made to investigate the oxygen transported to the steel by the decomposition of Cr₂O₃. It was calculated that when Al is present in steel, more than 90% of the reoxidation of Cr₂O₃ is caused by Al, and the rest is caused by decomposition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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16 pages, 11319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Transverse Uniform and Non-Uniform Secondary Cooling Strategies on Heat Transfer and Solidification Structure of Continuous-Casting Billet

by Yanshen Han, Xingyu Wang, Jiangshan Zhang, Fanzheng Zeng, Jun Chen, Min Guan and Qing Liu

Metals 2019, 9(5), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9050543 - 10 May 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4588

Abstract

Water flux distribution largely influences the heat transfer and solidification of continuously-cast steel billets. In this paper, a secondary cooling strategy of transverse non-uniform water flux (i.e., higher flux density on billet center), was established and compared with the uniform cooling strategy using [...] Read more.

Water flux distribution largely influences the heat transfer and solidification of continuously-cast steel billets. In this paper, a secondary cooling strategy of transverse non-uniform water flux (i.e., higher flux density on billet center), was established and compared with the uniform cooling strategy using mathematical modeling. Specifically, a heat transfer model and a cellular automaton finite element coupling model were established to simulate the continuous casting of C80D steel billet. The water flux was measured using different nozzle configurations to assist the modeling. The mathematical results were validated by comparing the surface temperature and the solidification structure. It is shown that the non-uniform cooling strategy enables the increase of corner temperature and reduction in surface temperature difference, while a higher reheating rate is found on the surface center of the billet. Moreover, the non-uniform cooling strategy can enhance the cooling effect and refine the solidification structure. Accordingly, the liquid pool length is shortened, and the equiaxed crystal density is increased along with the decreased equiaxed crystal ratio. The uniform cooling strategy contributes to reducing internal cracks of billet, and the non-uniform one is beneficial for surface quality and central segregation. For C80D steel, the non-uniform cooling strategy outperforms the uniform one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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7 pages, 1898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic and Experimental Studies on Al Addition of 253MA Steel

by Yandong Li, Tongsheng Zhang, Chengjun Liu and Maofa Jiang

Metals 2019, 9(4), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9040433 - 12 Apr 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2346

Abstract

To solve the nozzle clogging issue in the continuous casting process of 253MA steel, a method of modifying solid inclusions to liquid phases is proposed. The CALPHAD technique was employed to predict the liquid region of the Al₂O₃-SiO₂ [...] Read more.

To solve the nozzle clogging issue in the continuous casting process of 253MA steel, a method of modifying solid inclusions to liquid phases is proposed. The CALPHAD technique was employed to predict the liquid region of the Al₂O₃-SiO₂-Ce₂O₃ system. Then a thermodynamic package based on the extracted data during the phase diagram optimization process was developed. This package was then used to compute the appropriate aluminum addition, which was 0.01% in 253MA steel. The Si-Al alloy was chosen as the deoxidant according to the thermodynamic analysis. The solid inclusions were ultimately modified to liquid phases at 1500 °C when cerium was added through the equilibrium experiments in a MoSi₂ tube furnace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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11 pages, 5563 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Slag-Steel Reaction of Mold Fluxes Used for Casting Al-TRIP Steel

by Kaitian Zhang, Jianhua Liu and Heng Cui

Metals 2019, 9(4), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9040398 - 01 Apr 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2706

Abstract

The reaction between [Al] in molten steel and (SiO₂) in the liquid slag layer was one of the restrictive factors in the quality control for high Al-TRIP steel continuous casting. In this work, the composition and property variations of two slags [...] Read more.

The reaction between [Al] in molten steel and (SiO₂) in the liquid slag layer was one of the restrictive factors in the quality control for high Al-TRIP steel continuous casting. In this work, the composition and property variations of two slags during a slag-steel reaction were analyzed. Accordingly, the crystalline morphologies of slag were discussed and the solid layer lubrication performance was evaluated by Jackson α factors. In addition, a simple kinetics equilibrium model was established to analyze the factors which affected SiO₂ consumption. The results reflected that slag-steel reacted rapidly in the first 20 minutes, resulting in the variation of viscosity and the melting temperature of slags. The slag-steel reaction also affected the crystal morphology significantly. Slag was precipitated as crystals with a higher melting temperature, a higher Jackson α factor, and a rougher boundary with the consumption of SiO₂ and the generation of Al₂O₃. In other words, although generated Al₂O₃ acted as a network modifier to decrease the viscosity of the liquid slag layer adjacent slab shell, the consumption of SiO₂ led to the deterioration of the lubrication performance in the solid slag layer adjacent copper, which was detrimental to the quality control for high Al-TRIP steel. Finally, a kinetics equilibrium model indicated that it is possible to reduce a slag-steel reaction by adjusting factors, such as the diffusion coefficient k,

c_{{SiO}_{2}}

,

ρ_{f}

and

L_{f}

, during the actual continuous casting process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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11 pages, 3653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cooling Rate on the Formation of Nonmetallic Inclusions in X80 Pipeline Steel

by Xianguang Zhang, Wen Yang, Haikun Xu and Lifeng Zhang

Metals 2019, 9(4), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9040392 - 29 Mar 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2690

Abstract

Nonmetallic inclusions have a strong influence on the hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) and sulfide stress cracking (SSC) in pipeline steels, which should be well controlled to improve the steel resistance to HIC and SSC. The effects of cooling rate on the formation of nonmetallic [...] Read more.

Nonmetallic inclusions have a strong influence on the hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) and sulfide stress cracking (SSC) in pipeline steels, which should be well controlled to improve the steel resistance to HIC and SSC. The effects of cooling rate on the formation of nonmetallic inclusions have been studied both experimentally and thermodynamically. It was found that the increasing cooling rate increased the number density and decreased the size of the inclusions, while the inverse results were obtained by decreasing the cooling rate. Furthermore, as the cooling rate decreased from 10 to 0.035 K/s, the inclusions were changed from Al₂O₃-CaO to Al₂O₃-CaO-MgO-CaS. At a high cooling rate, the reaction time is short and the inclusions cannot be completely transformed which should be mainly formed at high temperatures. While, at low cooling rate, the inclusions can be gradually transformed and tend to follow the equilibrium compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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17 pages, 10732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluid Flow Turbulence in the Proximities of the Metal-Slag Interface in Ladle Stirring Operations

by Fabian Andrés Calderón-Hurtado, Rodolfo Morales Dávila, Kinnor Chattopadhyay and Saúl García-Hernández

Metals 2019, 9(2), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9020192 - 06 Feb 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3023

Abstract

Three-phase interactions (metal-slag-argon) in ladle stirring operations have strong effects on the metal-slag mass transfer processes. Specifically, the thickness of the slag controls the fluid turbulence to an extent that once trespassing a critical thickness, increases of stirring strength no longer effect the [...] Read more.

Three-phase interactions (metal-slag-argon) in ladle stirring operations have strong effects on the metal-slag mass transfer processes. Specifically, the thickness of the slag controls the fluid turbulence to an extent that once trespassing a critical thickness, increases of stirring strength no longer effect the flow. To analyze these conditions, a physical model considering the three phases was built to study liquid turbulence in the proximities of the metal-slag interface. A velocity probe placed close to the interface permitted the continuous monitoring and statistical analyses of any turbulence. The slag eye opening was found to be strongly dependent on the stirring conditions, and the mixing times decreased with thin slag thicknesses. Slag entrainment was enhanced with thick slag layers and high flow rates of the gas phase. A multiphase model was developed to simulate these results and was found to be a good agreement between experimental and numerical results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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21 pages, 8805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deformation Behavior of Internal Porosity in Continuous Casting Wide-Thick Slab during Heavy Reduction

by Chenhui Wu, Cheng Ji and Miaoyong Zhu

Metals 2019, 9(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9020128 - 25 Jan 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2957

Abstract

Heavy reduction (HR) is a novel technology that could effectively improve the internal porosities and other internal quality problems in continuously cast steel, during which a large reduction deformation is implemented at and after the strand solidification end. In the present paper, non-uniform [...] Read more.

Heavy reduction (HR) is a novel technology that could effectively improve the internal porosities and other internal quality problems in continuously cast steel, during which a large reduction deformation is implemented at and after the strand solidification end. In the present paper, non-uniform solidification of the wide-thick slab was calculated with a two-dimensional (2D) heat transfer model. Based on the predicted temperature distribution at the solidification end of the casting strand, a three-dimensional (3D) thermal-mechanical coupled model was developed for investigating the deformation behavior of the internal porosities in wide-thick slab during HR. An Arrhenius-type constitutive model for the studied steel grade was derived based on the measured true stress-strain with single-pass thermosimulation compression experiments and applied to the 3D thermal-mechanical coupled model for improving the calculation accuracy. With the developed 3D thermal-mechanical coupled model, deformation behavior of the two artificial porosities located at the slab center of 1/2 width and 1/8 width during HR was investigated under different condition of HR deformation, HR start position, and HR reduction mode. Based on the calculated porosity closure degree (η_s) and the corresponding equivalent strain (ε_eq) under different HR conditions, a prediction model that describes the quantitative relationship between η_s and ε_eq was derived for directly and accurately evaluating the process effect of HR on improving the internal porosities in wide-thick slab. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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12 pages, 910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphorus Equilibrium Between Liquid Iron and CaO-SiO₂-MgO-Al₂O₃-FeO-P₂O₅ Slags: EAF Slags, the Effect of Alumina and New Correlation

by Andre N. Assis, Mohammed A. Tayeb, Seetharaman Sridhar and Richard J. Fruehan

Metals 2019, 9(2), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9020116 - 23 Jan 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4995

Abstract

The increased use of electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking using up to 100% direct reduced iron (DRI) has prompted an interest in better control of phosphorus since iron ore and, consequently, DRI have higher phosphorus and silica compared to scrap. There is limited [...] Read more.

The increased use of electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking using up to 100% direct reduced iron (DRI) has prompted an interest in better control of phosphorus since iron ore and, consequently, DRI have higher phosphorus and silica compared to scrap. There is limited work reported on slag chemistries corresponding to that in the EAF when DRI is used. In the current research, phosphorus equilibria between molten Fe–P alloys and CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-P₂O₅-FeO-MgO_saturated slags were investigated. The results indicate that there is a significant decrease in the phosphorus partition coefficient (L_P) as alumina in the slag increases. The observed effect of alumina on the phosphorus partition is probably caused by the decrease in the activities of iron oxide and calcium oxide. Finally, an equilibrium correlation for phosphorus partition as a function of slag composition and temperature has been developed. It includes the effect of alumina and silica and is suitable for both oxygen and electric steelmaking-type slags. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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11 pages, 5098 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Al on Evolution of the Inclusions in Ti-Bearing Steel with Ca Treatment

by Yandong Li, Tongsheng Zhang and Huamei Duan

Metals 2019, 9(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9010104 - 21 Jan 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3725

Abstract

Experimental simulations of steelmaking with different amounts of aluminum were achieved in the tube furnace at 1873 K and field scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FE-SEM and EDX) were employed to explore the characteristics of the inclusions in Ti-bearing steel [...] Read more.

Experimental simulations of steelmaking with different amounts of aluminum were achieved in the tube furnace at 1873 K and field scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FE-SEM and EDX) were employed to explore the characteristics of the inclusions in Ti-bearing steel during the calcium treatment process. It was found that morphologies, chemical compositions, and the size distribution of the inclusions were obviously different before and after calcium treatment. The calcium addition need be carefully considered regarding the mass fraction of aluminum with the purpose of modifying the solid inclusions to liquid phases. The thermodynamic analysis of inclusion formation in the Al–Ti–Ca–O system at 1873 K was conducted, as well as transformation behaviors of inclusions including all types of solid inclusions and liquid phases during solidification. The thermodynamic equilibrium calculations are in good agreement with experimental data, which can be used to estimate inclusion formation in Ti-bearing steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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13 pages, 3617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Quality Steel Casting by Using Advanced Mathematical Methods

by Tomas Mauder and Josef Stetina

Metals 2018, 8(12), 1019; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8121019 - 04 Dec 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3380

Abstract

The main concept of this paper is to utilize advanced numerical modelling techniques with self-regulation algorithm in order to reach optimal casting conditions for real-time casting control. Fully 3-D macro-solidification model for the continuous casting (CC) process and an original fuzzy logic regulator [...] Read more.

The main concept of this paper is to utilize advanced numerical modelling techniques with self-regulation algorithm in order to reach optimal casting conditions for real-time casting control. Fully 3-D macro-solidification model for the continuous casting (CC) process and an original fuzzy logic regulator are combined. The fuzzy logic (FL) regulator reacts on signals from two data inputs, the temperature field and the historical steel quality database. FL adjust the cooling intensity as a function of casting speed and pouring temperature. This approach was originally designed for the special high-quality high-additive steel grades such as higher strength grades, steel for acidic environments, steel for the offshore technology and so forth. However, mentioned approach can be also used for any arbitrary low-carbon steel grades. The usability and results of this approach are demonstrated for steel grade S355, were the real historical data from quality database contains approximately 2000 heats. The presented original solution together with the large steel quality databases can be used as an independent CC prediction control system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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11 pages, 10046 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geometric Modification of the Tundish Impact Point

by Branislav Buľko, Ivan Priesol, Peter Demeter, Peter Gašparovič, Dana Baricová and Martina Hrubovčáková

Metals 2018, 8(11), 944; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8110944 - 14 Nov 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3315

Abstract

In connection with the increasing requirements for cleanliness in conticast steel, it is necessary to develop original solutions. The tundish, as the last refractory-lined reactor, gives enough space to remove inclusions by optimizing the flow of steel. The basic component of the tundish [...] Read more.

In connection with the increasing requirements for cleanliness in conticast steel, it is necessary to develop original solutions. The tundish, as the last refractory-lined reactor, gives enough space to remove inclusions by optimizing the flow of steel. The basic component of the tundish is the impact pad, the shape of which creates a suitable flow of steel, thus making it part of the tundish metallurgy. The optimal steel flow in the tundish must avoid creating dead zone areas, or the slag “eye” phenomenon in the slag layer around the ladle shroud, and is intended to create conditions for the release of inclusions by promoting reactions at the steel-slag phase interface. The flow also has to prevent excessive erosion of the tundish refractory lining. This paper compares the standard impact pad with the “Spheric” spherical impact pad using computional fluid dynamiscs (CFD) tools and physical modelling. The evaluation criteria are residence time and flow in the tundish at three different casting speeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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14 pages, 6761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Immersion Depth of a Swirling Flow Tundish SEN on Multiphase Flow and Heat Transfer in Mold

by Peiyuan Ni, Mikael Ersson, Lage T. I. Jonsson, Ting-An Zhang and Pär Göran Jönsson

Metals 2018, 8(11), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8110910 - 06 Nov 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3153

Abstract

The effect of the immersion depth of a new swirling flow tundish SEN (Submerged Entry Nozzle) on the multiphase flow and heat transfer in a mold was studied using numerical simulation. The RSM (Reynolds Stress Model) and the VOF (Volume of Fluid) model [...] Read more.

The effect of the immersion depth of a new swirling flow tundish SEN (Submerged Entry Nozzle) on the multiphase flow and heat transfer in a mold was studied using numerical simulation. The RSM (Reynolds Stress Model) and the VOF (Volume of Fluid) model were used to solve the steel and slag flow phenomena. The results show that the SEN immersion depth can significantly influence the steel flow near the meniscus. Specifically, an increase of the SEN immersion depth decreases the interfacial velocity, and this reduces the risk for the slag entrainment. The calculated Weber Number decreases from 0.8 to 0.2 when the SEN immersion depth increases from 15 cm to 25 cm. With a large SEN immersion depth, the steel flow velocity near the solidification front, which is below the mold level of SEN outlet, was increased. The temperature distribution has a similar distribution characteristic for different SEN immersion depths. The high temperature region is located near the solidification front. Temperature near the meniscus was slightly decreased when the SEN immersion depth was increased, due to an increased steel moving distance from the SEN outlet to the meniscus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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9 pages, 2273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Influence of Intermix Conditions on Steel Cleanliness

by Branislav Bul’ko, Marek Molnár, Peter Demeter, Dana Baricová, Alena Pribulová and Peter Futáš

Metals 2018, 8(10), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8100852 - 19 Oct 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2708

Abstract

Modern steel plants produce today a large portfolio of various steel grades, many for end-uses demanding high quality. In order to utilize the maximum productivity of the continuous-casting machine, it is sometimes necessary to cast steel grades with different chemical compositions in one [...] Read more.

Modern steel plants produce today a large portfolio of various steel grades, many for end-uses demanding high quality. In order to utilize the maximum productivity of the continuous-casting machine, it is sometimes necessary to cast steel grades with different chemical compositions in one sequence. It is important, therefore, to know the possibilities of a specific continuous-casting machine to make the Intermix connections as short as possible. Any interference with established procedures may, however, have a negative impact on the cleanliness of the cast steel. Using physical and numerical simulation tools, it was found that reducing the steel level in the tundish during the exchange of ladles makes it possible to shorten the transition zone. However, when the steel level is reduced, the flow of steel is impaired, which can have a negative effect on the cleanliness of the cast steel and, in extreme cases, may even lead to entrapment of slag in the mold. The cleanliness of cast steel was evaluated using one of the most advanced tools for automatic steel cleanliness evaluation, AZtecFeature (Oxford Instruments, Abingdon, UK), which enables determination of the type, size, distribution, and shape, as well as the chemical composition, of individual types of non-metal inclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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14 pages, 5701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Change of the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Slag during Oxygen Blowing in the Oxygen Converter Process

by Dana Baricová, Alena Pribulová, Peter Futáš, Branislav Buľko and Peter Demeter

Metals 2018, 8(10), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/met8100844 - 18 Oct 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3046

Abstract

The article presents the results of the investigation of changes in the chemical and mineralogical composition of slag during steel production in a blown oxygen converter. This process was monitored using the slag samples that were collected during the period when oxygen blowing [...] Read more.

The article presents the results of the investigation of changes in the chemical and mineralogical composition of slag during steel production in a blown oxygen converter. This process was monitored using the slag samples that were collected during the period when oxygen blowing into an oxygen converter was interrupted. The slag samples were collected after 150 s (2.5 min), then after 5, 8, 11, and 24 min of oxygen blowing, and in minute 27 when oxygen blowing was terminated. The sampling was carried out within five consecutive melting processes. The article presents and documents the changes in the contents of CaO, CaO (free), Fe (total), FeO, SiO₂, and in the basicity of the slag during oxygen blowing. It also provides the characteristics of individual structural components formed during oxygen blowing and a detailed description of the lime assimilation process, including the formation of the final structure of the slag, consisting of dicalcium silicate (2CaO·SiO₂), tricalcium silicate (3CaO·SiO₂), RO-phase, and calcium ferrites (2CaO·Fe₂O₃). The results of the investigation of the changes in the chemical composition of the slag during oxygen blowing in an oxygen converter were compared with the changes in the structural composition of the slag. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Refining and Casting of Steel)

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