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Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention

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A special issue of Hydrology (ISSN 2306-5338). This special issue belongs to the section "Surface Waters and Groundwaters".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (29 February 2024) | Viewed by 16008

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Dr. Pantelis Sidiropoulos

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Assistant Professor, School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Interests: analysis, modelling, and forecasting of groundwater resources; spatiotemporal analysis of groundwater quantity and quality variables; deterministic and stochastic groundwater modelling and optimization; water resources management; applications of GIS; design and supervision of hydrotechnical projects
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Dr. Augustina Clara Alexander

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Department of Water Resources Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, University of Dar es Salaam, MJKN, Main Campus, 16103 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Interests: groundwater modeling pollution monitoring and remediation; groundwater-surface water interaction; impact of climate change and variability on water resources; mining impact on groundwater and stochastic optimization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Groundwater resources are vital for ecosystems and for human health and prosperity. Groundwater pollution continues to increase, a fact that further limits the potential of groundwater resources for use. The sources of contaminants can be natural (e.g., salinity or arsenic) or anthropogenic (excess fertilizers, pesticides, industrial chemicals, sewage effluent). Groundwater pollution may emerge from point sources (which can be well identified in space) and nonpoint sources, which are more difficult to identify, measure, and control than the former. To deal with this phenomenon, the sources of pollution and the mechanisms of the fate and transport of pollutants in the groundwater must be identified. This procedure is quite important because it forms the basis on which the appropriate prevention or mitigation measures will be generated. The latter are preferable to any remediation effort, as adverse effects on the environment and the health of living organisms are prevented. However, since groundwater contamination is less obvious than surface water pollution, it frequently goes unnoticed. In this case, it is mandatory that a remediation strategy be undertaken.

This Special Issue entitled “Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention” aims to present new research contributions in the area of groundwater contamination, and will focus on the sources, effects, and exposure of natural and artificial groundwater pollutants, hydrological processes, and hydrochemical properties of groundwater; the intrinsic and specific vulnerability of groundwater to pollution; human health risk assessment; and recent trends in management and pollution mitigation, prevention and remediation strategies.

Potential themes include, but are not limited to, the following:

Investigating anthropogenic and natural sources of groundwater contamination;
Intrinsic and specific vulnerability of groundwater to pollution;
Monitoring of groundwater quality;
GIS spatial analyses;
Numerical simulation and statistical analysis of groundwater flow and contamination transport;
Human health risk assessment of groundwater;
Impact of climate change on groundwater pollution;
Prevention and mitigation measures, remediation techniques and policy-making.

Dr. Pantelis Sidiropoulos
Dr. Augustina Clara Alexander
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

groundwater
pollution
hydrochemistry
water quality
monitoring
modeling
vulnerability
prevention
remediation

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 5178 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simulation–Optimization Model for Optimal Aquifer Remediation, Using Genetic Algorithms and MODFLOW

by Yiannis Ν. Kontos

Hydrology 2024, 11(5), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11050060 - 24 Apr 2024

Viewed by 481

Abstract

This paper investigates the optimal remediation process in an aquifer using Modflow 6 software and genetic algorithms. A theoretical confined aquifer has been polluted over a long period of time by unnoticed leakage in a pipeline conveying leachate from an adjacent landfill to a wastewater treatment plant. When the extended leakage and groundwater pollution are discovered, the optimal planning of the remediation strategy is investigated using the pump-and-treat method or/and hydrodynamic control of the pollution. The practical goal is to find the optimal locations and flow rates of two additional pumping wells, which will pump the polluted water or/and control pollution, protecting an existing drinking water pumping well, securing its fully operational mode even during the remediation process with the minimum possible cost, simply represented by the pumped water volume of the additional wells. The remediation process is considered complete when the maximum concentration in the aquifer drops below a certain limit. The Modflow software (handled by the Flopy Python package) simulates the flow field and advective–dispersive mass transport, and a genetic algorithm is used as the optimization tool. The coupled simulation–optimization model, Modflow-GA, complemented by a sophisticated post-processing results analysis, provides optimal and alternate sub-optimal remediation strategies for the decision makers to select from. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

18 pages, 20930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Groundwater Flow Model Calibration Using Variable Density Modeling for Coastal Aquifer Management

by Martha Perdikaki, Efthymios Chrysanthopoulos, Konstantinos Markantonis and Andreas Kallioras

Hydrology 2024, 11(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11040059 - 22 Apr 2024

Viewed by 449

Abstract

The paper investigates the mechanism of seawater intrusion and the performance of free and open-source codes for the simulation of variable density flow problems in coastal aquifers. For this purpose, the research focused on the Marathon Watershed, located in the northeastern tip of Attica, Greece. For the simulation of the groundwater system, MODFLOW, MT3DMS and SEAWAT codes were implemented, while sensitivity analysis and calibration processes were carried out with UCODE. Hydraulic head calibration was performed on the MODFLOW model, and TDS concentration was validated in the SEAWAT model. The calibrated parameters of the MODFLOW model were obtained for the variable density flow simulation with SEAWAT. The MODFLOW and SEAWAT hydraulic head outputs were analyzed and compared to one another. The outcome of this analysis is that SEAWAT produced slightly better results in terms of the hydraulic heads, concluding that parameter transferability can take place between the two models. For the purpose of the seawater intrusion assessment, the use of the SEAWAT code revealed that the aquifer is subjected to passive and passive–active seawater intrusion during wet and dry seasons, respectively. Finally, an irregular shape of a saltwater wedge is developed at a specific area associated with the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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25 pages, 9977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climatic Modeling of Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers: Understanding the Climate Change Impacts

by Aikaterini Lyra, Athanasios Loukas, Pantelis Sidiropoulos and Nikitas Mylopoulos

Hydrology 2024, 11(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11040049 - 06 Apr 2024

Viewed by 653

Abstract

The study examines the impacts of climate change and sea level rise on coastal aquifers, focusing on the influence of the components of the water cycle on seawater intrusion, and the evolution of the phenomenon in the future. The simulation of coastal water resources was performed using an integrated modeling system (IMS), designed for agricultural coastal watersheds, which consists of inter-connected models of surface hydrology (UTHBAL), groundwater hydrology (MODFLOW), and seawater intrusion (SEAWAT). Climatic models for the adverse impact scenario (RCP8.5) and the medium impact scenario (RCP4.5) of climate change were used. Transient boundary head conditions were set to the coastal boundary, to dynamically represent the rise in sea level due to climate change. The response of groundwater in the coastal Almyros Basin, located in central Greece, was simulated from 1991 to 2100. The findings indicate that seawater intrusion will be advanced in the future, in both climate change scenarios. The models show varying patterns in groundwater recharge, with varying uncertainty projected into the future, and sensitivity to time in the fluctuation of the components of the water cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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20 pages, 5229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Technique for Mapping Groundwater Recharge Zones: A Case Study of SW Riyadh, Central Saudi Arabia

by Eman Mohamed M. EL-Bana, Haya M. Alogayell, Mariam Hassan Sheta and Mohamed Abdelfattah

Hydrology 2024, 11(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11030038 - 03 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1546

Abstract

It might be difficult to find possible groundwater reservoir zones, especially in arid or hilly regions. In the twenty-first century, remotely sensed satellite imagery may present a new opportunity to locate surface and subsurface water resources more quickly and affordably. In order to identify groundwater potential zones, the current study was conducted in Central Saudi Arabia, southwest of Riyadh. The present analysis employed a multi-criteria approach that relies on remote sensing and geographic information systems. The variables employed in this technique include geology, rainfall, elevation, slope, aspect, hillshade, drainage density, lineaments density, and Land Use/Land Cover (LULC). The Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) was used for assigning weights to the parameters, and the corresponding significance of each parameter’s several classes for groundwater potentiality. Different groundwater potential zones were identified by the study: very high (16.8%), high (30%), medium (26.7%), low (18.6%), and very low (7.9%). Only two of the observation wells were located in the “medium” potential zone, but the other ten wells were observed in the “very high and high” potential zones, according to the validation survey. Consequently, the results may demonstrate that the current approach, which combines improved conceptualization with AHP to define and map groundwater potential zones, has a greater chance of producing accurate results and can be used to reduce the threat of drought in broader arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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30 pages, 14376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Framework to Assess the Environmental and Economic Impact of Fertilizer Restrictions in a Nitrate-Contaminated Aquifer

by Ilias Siarkos, Zisis Mallios and Pericles Latinopoulos

Hydrology 2024, 11(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology11010008 - 04 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2031

Abstract

Groundwater nitrate contamination caused by the excessive use of nitrogen-based fertilizers has been widely recognized as an issue of significant concern in numerous rural areas worldwide. To mitigate nitrate contamination, corrective management practices, such as regulations on fertilizer usage, should be implemented. However, these measures often entail economic consequences that impact farmers’ income, and thus should be properly assessed. Within this context, an integrated framework combining the environmental and economic assessment of fertilization restrictions through multi-criteria decision analysis is presented in an effort to efficiently manage groundwater nitrate contamination in rural areas. For this task, various scenarios involving reductions (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%) in fertilizer application were investigated, evaluated and ranked in order to determine the most suitable option. The environmental assessment considered occurrences of nitrates in groundwater, with a specific emphasis on nitrate concentrations in water-supply wells, as obtained by a nitrate fate and transport model, while the economic analysis focused on the losses experienced by farmers due to the reduced fertilizer usage. Our case-study implementation showed that a 30% reduction in fertilization is the most appropriate option for the area being studied, highlighting the importance of adopting such an approach when confronted with conflicting outcomes among alternatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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22 pages, 3798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Nitrate in Groundwater from Diffuse Sources Considering Spatiotemporal Patterns of Hydrological Systems Using a Coupled SWAT/MODFLOW/MT3DMS Model

by Alejandra Correa-González, Joel Hernández-Bedolla, Marco Antonio Martínez-Cinco, Sonia Tatiana Sánchez-Quispe and Mario Alberto Hernández-Hernández

Hydrology 2023, 10(11), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10110209 - 09 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1877

Abstract

In recent years, due to various anthropogenic activities, such as agriculture and livestock, the presence of nitrogen-associated contaminants has been increasing in surface- and groundwater resources. Among these, the main compounds present in groundwater are ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate. However, it is sometimes difficult to assess such effects given the scarcity or lack of information and the complexity of the system. In the current study, a methodology is proposed to assess nitrate in groundwater from diffuse sources considering spatiotemporal patterns of hydrological systems using a coupled SWAT/MODFLOW/MT3DMS model. The application of the model is carried out using a simplified simulation scheme of hydrological and agricultural systems because of the limited spatial and temporal data. The study area includes the Cuitzeo Lake basin in superficial flow form and the Morelia–Querendaro aquifer in groundwater flow form. The results within the methodology are surface runoff, groundwater levels, and nitrate concentrations present in surface- and groundwater systems. The results indicate that the historical and simulated nitrate concentrations were obtained within acceptable values of the statistical parameters and, therefore, are considered adequate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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19 pages, 8648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Distance between the Measured and Assumed Location of a Point Source of Pollution in Groundwater as a Function of the Variance of the Estimation Error

by Ivan Kovač, Marko Šrajbek, Nikolina Klišanin and Gordon Gilja

Hydrology 2023, 10(10), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10100199 - 09 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1493

Abstract

The localization of pollution sources is one of the main tasks in environmental engineering. For this paper, models of spatial distribution of nitrate concentration in groundwater were created, and the point of highest concentration was determined. This point represents the assumed location of the pollution source and differs from the actual location, so there is a certain distance between the measured and assumed location. This paper puts forward a new hypothesis that the distance between the measured and the assumed location is a function of the variance of the estimation error. The scientific contribution of this paper is based on the fact that the interaction of statistical and geostatistical methods can locate the dominant point source of pollution or narrow down the search area. The above hypothesis is confirmed by the example of the Varaždin wellfield, which was closed due to an excessively high groundwater nitrate concentration. Seven different interpolation methods were used to create spatial distribution models. Each method provides a different model, a different variance of the estimation error, and estimates of the location of the pollution source. The smallest value of variance of the estimation error of 1.65 was obtained for the minimum curvature interpolation method and the largest value of variance (24.49) was obtained for the kriging with logarithmic variogram. Our results show a nonlinear and monotonic relationship between the distance and the variance of the estimation error, so logarithmic and rational quadratic models were fitted to the scatter point data. The models were linearized, a t-test was performed, and the results show that the models can be considered reliable, which is confirmed by the values of the coefficients of determination of the linearized models, which are around 0.50. The obtained results can be used in planning additional research work to determine the measured location of the pollution source. The research methodology we used is universal and can be applied to other locations where high concentrations of certain contaminants have been detected in groundwater in alluvial aquifers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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17 pages, 10821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Groundwater Quality Using the Water Quality Index (WQI) and Human Health Risk (HHR) Assessment in West Bank, Palestine

by Ashraf Zohud, Lubna Alam and Choo Ta Goh

Hydrology 2023, 10(10), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10100198 - 07 Oct 2023

Viewed by 3079

Abstract

Access to clean and safe water is extremely important, not only in Palestine but also worldwide. In the West Bank, groundwater is particularly valuable because of its scarcity and inaccessibility, and, due to the nature of the area’s aquifers, is currently regarded as being at high risk of pollution. Moreover, the water quality in this area is also of wide concern, with its effects being directly linked to human health. Certain parts of the West Bank groundwater suffer from high concentrations of nitrate and potassium. In total, 38.8% of nitrate and 10% of potassium concentrations in well samples exceed the permissible limit set by the WHO and PSI, and, therefore, health problems arise as a limiting factor for life quality and welfare in this region. Moreover, 87.7% of samples are classified as having very hard water. To evaluate the well water in the study area, an assessment was conducted based on the WQI and HHR. Therefore, 49 samples were taken from a group of wells distributed across the study area during the year 2021. The physico-chemical parameters of each sample were analysed. The WQI values showed that 78% of the well samples were of good quality. Moreover, in the classification of the water based on a Piper diagram, 65% of the groundwater was determined to be calcium–magnesium–bicarbonate-type water. Likewise, health risk assessments were evaluated for fluoride and nitrate in drinking water for adults, children, and infants. The main values of the estimated total hazard index (THI) obtained from the analysed data on the health risk assessments revealed a diverse effect on the local population based on age category. The ranges of THI in all sampling locations varied considerably and extended from 0.093 to 3.01 for adults, 0.29 to 3.08 for children, and 0.302 to 3.21 for infants. These results widely indicate that infants are more exposed to health risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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18 pages, 13584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Geophysical and Hydrogeochemical Methods to Evaluate Groundwater Potential and Quality in Middle Egypt

by Esam Ismail, Dimitrios E. Alexakis, Mohamed Abou Heleika, Mohamed Hashem, Mohamed S. Ahmed, Doha Hamdy and Ahmed Ali

Hydrology 2023, 10(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10080173 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1409

Abstract

The El-Minia district is a location of interest for future urban development. Using hydrochemistry and electrical resistivity studies, this work aimed to evaluate the groundwater potentiality and it’s suitable for various uses. The groundwater potential in the study area was evaluated based on 24 VESs (vertical electrical soundings), and its quality was determined based on the analyses of 57 groundwater samples. EC (salinity index), Na% (salt hazard), SAR (ratio of sodium adsorption), chloride risks, SSP (soluble sodium percentage), MH (magnesium hazard), and other indicators were used to determine whether the collected water samples were suitable for irrigation. Four layers in the study area are mentioned in the geoelectrical cross-sections that have been constructed. The first is made up of silt and clay from the Nile River, while the second is made up of sandy clay, which has a resistivity range of 15 to 32 Ohm.m and a range thickness of 2 to 68 m. Dry limestone makes up the third layer; its resistivity ranges from 1222 to 3000 Ohm.m and its thickness varies between 75 and 95 m. The Eocene aquifer in the research area is represented by the final layer, which has a thickness of more than 250 m and resistivity values that range from 602 to 860 Ohm.m. Most groundwater samples that were collected are safe for drinking; however, none of them are fit for home usage because of their extreme hardness. According to the SAR and US diagram, RSC, KR, and PI, most groundwater samples from the Pleistocene and Eocene aquifers are fit for irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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13 pages, 4261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of the Groundwater Quality and Potential Noncarcinogenic Health Risk Assessment of Nitrate in the Groundwater of El Milia Plain, Kebir Rhumel Basin, Algeria

by Djouhaina Brella, Lazhar Belkhiri, Ammar Tiri, Hichem Salhi, Fatma Elhadj Lakouas, Razki Nouibet, Adeltif Amrane, Ryma Merdoud and Lotfi Mouni

Hydrology 2023, 10(8), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10080171 - 14 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1555

Abstract

In this study, we analyzed the quality and the potential noncarcinogenic health risk of nitrate in groundwater in the El Milia plain, Kebir Rhumel Basin, Algeria. Moran’s I and the ordinary kriging (OK) interpolation technique were used to examine the spatial distribution pattern of the hydrochemical parameters in the groundwater. It was found that the hydrochemical parameters Ca, Cl, and HCO₃ showed strong spatial autocorrelation in the El Milia plain, indicating a spatial dependence and clustering of these parameters in the groundwater. The groundwater quality was evaluated using the entropy water quality index (EWQI). The results showed that approximately 86% of the total groundwater samples in the study area fall within the moderate groundwater quality category. The spatial map of the EWQI values indicated an increasing trend from the south-west to the northeast, following the direction of groundwater flow. The highest EWQI values were observed near El Milia city in the center of the plain. This spatial pattern suggests variations in groundwater quality across the study area, with potentially higher risks near the city center. The potential noncarcinogenic health risks associated with nitrate contamination in groundwater for adults and children through the drinking water pathway were assessed using the hazard quotient (HQ). The results revealed that approximately 5.7% of the total groundwater samples exceeded the HQ limit for adults, indicating potential health risks. Moreover, a higher percentage, 14.28%, of the total groundwater samples exceeded the HQ limit for children, highlighting their increased vulnerability to noncarcinogenic health hazards associated with nitrate contamination in the study area. Taking timely action and ensuring strict compliance with regulations in groundwater management are crucial for protecting public health, preserving the environment, addressing water scarcity, and achieving sustainable development goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Pollution: Sources, Mechanisms, and Prevention)

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