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14 pages, 4771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mortar with Internal Curing Bottom Ash for Sand Shortage and Proper Curing

by Pochpagee Markpiban, Wittawat Krudam and Raktipong Sahamitmongkol

Buildings 2023, 13(3), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030613 - 25 Feb 2023

Viewed by 938

Using industrial waste such as bottom ash (BA) is a potential alternative to using sand for tackling the current shortage of natural resources in the construction industry. This, along with the internal curing concept, enables proper curing inside and out, especially for low [...] Read more.

Using industrial waste such as bottom ash (BA) is a potential alternative to using sand for tackling the current shortage of natural resources in the construction industry. This, along with the internal curing concept, enables proper curing inside and out, especially for low water-to-cement (w/c) ratio concrete, which has low permeability. The current work investigated the flow, compressive strength, heat flow, and microstructure characteristics (using an electron microprobe analysis, EPMA) to evaluate the use of internal curing BA as a sand-replacing material. Partial replacements of fine aggregate with BA were prepared in five different mortars (0, 20%, and 45%), with a fixed water-to-cement (w/c) ratio of 0.35. Consequently, the heat peak increased when using BA compared to the control mortar, indicating a higher hydration rate. The compressive strength of mortar with BA exceeded 50–60 MPa by 28 days. On the microstructural level, BA showed an increase in the volume fraction of small pores from 3 to 50 mm. Moreover, the content of Ca(OH)₂ in the mortar with BA increased from 3 to 28 d by enhancing the hydration. This study shows the possibility of valorizing BA as a sand replacement in the internal curing of concrete with a low w/c ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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14 pages, 3514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Cost and Construction Speed of Cladding Wall for Lightweight Steel Frame (LSF)

by Try Ramadhan, Beta Paramita and Ravi Shankar Srinivasan

Buildings 2022, 12(11), 1958; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12111958 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2544

Abstract

The strategic issue faced by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing, Republic of Indonesia (PUPR) is the large housing backlog, especially in the urban areas. Low-income communities earning less than 2 USD/day are found as the most vulnerable to lack of access [...] Read more.

The strategic issue faced by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing, Republic of Indonesia (PUPR) is the large housing backlog, especially in the urban areas. Low-income communities earning less than 2 USD/day are found as the most vulnerable to lack of access to affordable housing. This experiment aims to find an alternative solution on building construction material in accordance with the Ministry of Public Housing regulation No. 11 of 2011 about affordable housing guidelines. The experiment was carried out on an LSF to compare four different wall cladding materials. The building area was 36 m² and the total wall cladding area was 95 m². The wall cladding materials used were metal sheet, lightweight concrete brick, gypsum reinforced cement (GRC) board, and unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) fiber. The experiment collected data on purchases of materials to develop the S-curve and measure construction progress. Then, the work unit price analysis (WUPA) approach was carried out to simulate the labor coefficient of construction speed and its comparison to the material costs of the four wall cladding materials. The experiment on this 36 m² house found that metal sheet is the most efficient material, which took 22.7 h to cover a 95 m² wall. Later, it was followed by uPVC fiber with 46.6 h, GRC board with 59.7 h, and finally lightweight con-bricks with 85.7 h. Apparently, the metal sheet not only presented the most efficient construction time, but also provided the lowest construction cost with 115.960 IDR/m² (8.24 USD/m²). It was followed by uPVC fiber at 133.37 IDR/m² (9.48 USD/m²); GRC board at 146.91 IDR/m² (10.44 USD/m²) and finally lightweight con-bricks at 156.88 IDR/m² (11.15 USD/m²). Through WUPA, this study also found that efficient workmanship (construction speed) of the labor greatly affects construction costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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14 pages, 5049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Hybrid PVA–Steel Fibers on the Mechanical Performance of High-Ductility Cementitious Composites

by Lianghui Li, Bixiong Li, Zhiwen Wang, Zhibo Zhang and Othman Alselwi

Buildings 2022, 12(11), 1934; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12111934 - 10 Nov 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1446

Abstract

Producing high-ductility cementitious composites (HDCC) increased in parallel with concrete demand in China recently. However, the high cost of manufacturing cementitious composites (HDCC) persists. To reduce the cost of HDCC, steel fibers, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and river sand were used to produce HDCC [...] Read more.

Producing high-ductility cementitious composites (HDCC) increased in parallel with concrete demand in China recently. However, the high cost of manufacturing cementitious composites (HDCC) persists. To reduce the cost of HDCC, steel fibers, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and river sand were used to produce HDCC concrete in the present study. A total fiber content of 2% was formed with five different proportions of PVA fiber and steel fiber. Within the scope of the experimental studies, mechanical (workability, compressive strength, tensile, and bending properties), and microstructural (scanning electron microscopy) tests were carried out to investigate the properties of the hybrid fiber-reinforced composites. The results showed that the fluidity of HDCC increased with increasing steel fiber substitution. The compressive strength of the mixture containing 0.5% steel fiber and 1.5% PVA fiber exhibited a better compressive strength of 31.3 MPa. The tensile performance of the mixture was improved due to the incorporation of steel fiber. The initial cracking strength was about 2.32 MPa, 25.4% higher than that of the reference group, and the ultimate tensile strength was 3.36–3.56 MPa. However, reducing the content of PVA fiber impacts the flexural rigidity of the matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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17 pages, 7448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Procedures of Accelerated Aging and Evaluation of Effectiveness of Nanostructured Products for the Protection of Volterra (Italy) Panchina Stone

by Federica Fernandez, Silvia Germinario, Roberta Montagno, Roberta Basile, Leonardo Borgioli and Rocco Laviano

Buildings 2022, 12(10), 1685; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101685 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1199

Abstract

The aims of the research were to evaluate the effectiveness of the application of nanostructured products on Volterra calcarenite stone and to define the experimental conditions and procedures of accelerated aging tests, able to simulate different degradation on the studied lithotype. The work [...] Read more.

The aims of the research were to evaluate the effectiveness of the application of nanostructured products on Volterra calcarenite stone and to define the experimental conditions and procedures of accelerated aging tests, able to simulate different degradation on the studied lithotype. The work focused on methods of performing accelerated aging tests in order to simulate different effects of environmental decay involving stone used on a historical site. The rock samples were examined before and after three treatment types: cyclic salt spray chamber, cycles of freezing–thawing and cycles of thermal shock. After each artificial aging cycle, changes in appearance were noted and chemical and physical properties were measured so that the differences between untreated and treated samples could be compared. After applying nanostructured products on the sample surfaces, and assessing the effects of the accelerated aging, the protective performance of the coatings was evaluated using the contact angle test to evaluate the surface hygroscopicity. Moreover, scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS) analysis was performed before and after each application of nanostructured coating to evaluate changes in the surface morphology. Results demonstrated that Panchina stone showed a high durability to the aging tests, and artificial degradation effects were not largely visible. The nanostructured products seem to be suitable for stone protection by virtue of their good compatibility and effectiveness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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14 pages, 9757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Optical Characterization of Architectural Three-Dimensional Skins and Their Solar Control Potential

by Andrea Giovanni Mainini, Alberto Speroni, Tiziana Poli and Michele Zinzi

Buildings 2022, 12(8), 1103; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081103 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1623

Abstract

The use of second building skins is becoming a trademark in modern architecture, opening for innovative solutions, such as three-dimensional (3D) systems. This paper explores the potential of these systems to provide adequate solar protection to glazed façades by means of an advanced [...] Read more.

The use of second building skins is becoming a trademark in modern architecture, opening for innovative solutions, such as three-dimensional (3D) systems. This paper explores the potential of these systems to provide adequate solar protection to glazed façades by means of an advanced optical characterization. Spectral transmittance and reflectance of fourteen samples, belonging to several technological families, are measured with a built-in spectrophotometer, suitable to accurately characterize complex semi-transparent systems. Solar and lighting properties are then calculated. The normal optical properties strongly depend on the openness factor, thus the geometry primarily affects the performance. A total of 11 samples exhibit normal solar transmittance in the 40–53% range; the value decreases to 20% for the plissé metal grid and increases to 70% on average for metal meshes. The angular transmittance depends on the system texture geometry and its self-shading capabilities. It was found that such systems underperform as static conventional shading systems; however, one of the metal meshes, the plissé grid and the plastic grid exhibit relevant angular selectivity, with transmittance decay at 60° in the 58–72% range compared to the normal incidence value. The results show that some of the selected 3D systems provide adequate solar protection. The developed dataset can be used for early-stage design analyses, as well as for energy performance model input and validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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12 pages, 45123 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of the Bearing Width on the Buckling Capacity of Partially Loaded CLT Member

by Guofang Wu, Liangliang Huo, Yinlan Shen and Haiqing Ren

Buildings 2022, 12(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12010084 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1710

Abstract

The calculation method for buckling capacity of cross-laminated timber (CLT) under axial load with one-way members has been investigated and incorporated into design codes worldwide. However, the load may only be applied to a part of the CLT members. In this case, the [...] Read more.

The calculation method for buckling capacity of cross-laminated timber (CLT) under axial load with one-way members has been investigated and incorporated into design codes worldwide. However, the load may only be applied to a part of the CLT members. In this case, the available calculation method for buckling capacity is not applicable. To solve this problem, a 3D numerical model was developed to study the buckling behavior of axially loaded CLT members. After being validated by comparison with experimental results, the model was used to investigate the buckling capacity of axially loaded CLT members with different aspect ratios and bearing length ratios. The CLT members all consisted of three layers. The thickness of the CLT members was 105 mm, the width ranged from 300 mm to 2100 mm, and the height ranged from 1400 mm to 3500 mm. It was found that the unloaded part of CLT served as constraints to the loaded part. The longer the unloaded part, the stronger the constraint was. The buckling capacity increased with the increase in bearing length ratios. An equivalent width method (EWM) was proposed; i.e., the partially loaded CLT member was replaced by a fully loaded member with an equivalent width, which can be determined by the proposed formulas. It was found that the proposed calculation method is reliable and simple to apply. This study supplies the missing calculation method for the buckling behavior of partially loaded CLT members and helps to promote the engineering application of CLT members. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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17 pages, 5687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Sustainable Wood Waste Panels for Building Applications: Influence of Different Species and Assembling Techniques on Thermal, Acoustic, and Environmental Performance

by Francesca Merli, Elisa Belloni and Cinzia Buratti

Buildings 2021, 11(8), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11080361 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3141

Abstract

Multiple high quality wood waste from a window manufacturer is identified and collected. Eco-sustainable panels, with promising acoustic and thermal insulating performance, were then fabricated. The available wood is of different tree species (pine, oak, and mahogany) and size (pieces of wood, mixed [...] Read more.

Multiple high quality wood waste from a window manufacturer is identified and collected. Eco-sustainable panels, with promising acoustic and thermal insulating performance, were then fabricated. The available wood is of different tree species (pine, oak, and mahogany) and size (pieces of wood, mixed coarse chips, and mixed fine chips). Moreover, scraps of olive tree pruning from local areas were collected for reuse. The aim of the research is to assembly panels (300 × 300 mm²) both with different techniques (hand-made and hot-pressed) and type of adhesive (vinyl and flour glues) and to evaluate their thermal, acoustic, and environmental performance. All the panels present thermal and acoustic performance comparable with the similar ones available in the literature or with commercial solutions. The thermal conductivity varies in the 0.071 to 0.084 W/mK range at an average temperature of 10 °C, depending on the tree species, the assembly technique, and regardless of the type of adhesive used. Oak wood panels are characterized by both better sound absorption (α peak value of 0.9, similar to pine pressed sample with flour glue) and insulation (transmission loss up to 11 dB at 1700 Hz) properties. However, their added value is the low environmental impact assessed through life cycle analysis in compliance with ISO 14040, especially for panels assembled with natural glue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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Review

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46 pages, 1363 KiB

Open AccessReview

Critical Review of Polymeric Building Envelope Materials: Degradation, Durability and Service Life Prediction

by Marzieh Riahinezhad, Madeleine Hallman and J-F. Masson

Buildings 2021, 11(7), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11070299 - 07 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 10541

Abstract

This paper provides a critical review of the degradation, durability and service life prediction (SLP) of polymeric building envelope materials (BEMs), namely, claddings, air/vapour barriers, insulations, sealants, gaskets and fenestration. The rate of material deterioration and properties determine the usefulness of a product; [...] Read more.

This paper provides a critical review of the degradation, durability and service life prediction (SLP) of polymeric building envelope materials (BEMs), namely, claddings, air/vapour barriers, insulations, sealants, gaskets and fenestration. The rate of material deterioration and properties determine the usefulness of a product; therefore, knowledge of the significant degradation mechanisms in play for BEMs is key to the design of proper SLP methods. SLP seeks to estimate the life expectancy of a material/component exposed to in-service conditions. This topic is especially important with respect to the potential impacts of climate change. The surrounding environment of a building dictates the degradation mechanisms in play, and as climate change progresses, material aging conditions become more unpredictable. This can result in unexpected changes and/or damages to BEMs, and shorter than expected SL. The development of more comprehensive SLP methods is economically and environmentally sound, and it will provide more confidence, comfort and safety to all building users. The goal of this paper is to review the existing literature in order to identify the knowledge gaps and provide suggestions to address these gaps in light of the rapidly evolving climate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Materials)

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