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Applied Sciences
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Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes
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Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2024) | Viewed by 6234

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Eduardo Faleiro

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería y Diseño Industrial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28012 Madrid, Spain
Interests: grounding systems design and calculations; soil modeling; grounding malfunction detection; grounding response to lightning; transferred potentials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Gabriel Asensio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería y Diseño Industrial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28012 Madrid, Spain
Interests: grounding systems design and calculations; soil modeling; transferred potentials; grounding response to lightning
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Jorge Moreno

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería y Diseño Industrial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28012 Madrid, Spain
Interests: grounding systems design and calculations; soil modeling; transferred potentials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue (SI) is devoted to presenting new developments and models as well as improvements in existing calculation methods in order to optimize the response of a grounding system to low-frequency fault currents and lightning strikes. The optimization includes the possibility of using materials other than copper for the construction of grounding electrodes, the assessment of ampacity and heating by the Joule effect due to the internal resistance of the conductors, the effect of the grounding electrode damage due to oxidation, or the lack of contact with the conductive soil due to ground loosening. On the other hand, according to the soil conductivity model, any actions adopted to reduce the grounding resistance are also the subject of this SI. Additionally, any contribution to the optimization of lightning rod conductors in order to minimize the induced fields generated during lightning strikes is welcome. The topic is of great practical importance since it affects the safety requirements that the grounding system must meet. New models, improved calculations, new measurement techniques and other procedures are called to be published through this SI. Likewise, any input on non-destructive, non-invasive, and non-intrusive methods useful for checking the status of the grounding electrode will also be appreciated.

Prof. Dr. Eduardo Faleiro
Prof. Dr. Gabriel Asensio
Dr. Jorge Moreno
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • transient response
  • lightning-induced fields
  • non-negligible internal impedance
  • optima ground-line location
  • grounding electrode heating
  • ampacity study
  • coated electrodes
  • grounding system damage
  • effects of electrode corrosion
  • grounding malfunction detection test

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 2490 KiB  
Article
Impulse Characteristics of Soil Treated with Enhancement Materials and Various Moisture Contents
by Usman Muhammad, Fazlul Aman and Normiza Mohamad Nor
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020547 - 08 Jan 2024
Viewed by 1053
Abstract
Due to the high mineral contents of additives and enhancement materials (EMs), EMs have become popular in treating soil, which expectedly improves the electrical characteristics of soil. Much of the published work on the effectiveness of EMs is based on investigations at low [...] Read more.
Due to the high mineral contents of additives and enhancement materials (EMs), EMs have become popular in treating soil, which expectedly improves the electrical characteristics of soil. Much of the published work on the effectiveness of EMs is based on investigations at low magnitudes of voltage, current and frequency; however, the study of these EMs under high-impulse conditions has not been widely addressed. In this work, the experimental results of a small-mesh ground electrode without EMs and treated with EMs, where the latter was poured with a controlled amount of water, are presented. The impulse impedance was expected to change appreciably due to the ionic conduction in soil and the use of EMs with a high water content; however, the impulse impedance was found to be weak and dependent on the water content, and the inductive effect was found to be significant at the voltage and current decay times. This indicates that, even though EMs and highly wetted soil can reduce the soil resistivity and relative resistance value, special attention has to be given to the impulse characteristics of the ground electrodes, particularly at tail/decay times. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes)
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15 pages, 4540 KiB  
Article
Research on Lightning Overvoltage Protection of Line-Adjacent Pipelines Based on Solid-State Decoupling
by Wei Liu, Yuanchao Hu, Haipeng Tian, Zhipeng Jiang, Xiaole Su, Jie Xiong, Wei Su and Yi Wang
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12529; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212529 - 20 Nov 2023
Viewed by 736
Abstract
Existing transmission lines and pipelines are frequently crossed and erected in parallel, meaning that if lightning strikes a wire and causes insulator flashovers, the resulting lightning current will spread through the grounding of the tower where the flashover insulator is located. This dispersion [...] Read more.
Existing transmission lines and pipelines are frequently crossed and erected in parallel, meaning that if lightning strikes a wire and causes insulator flashovers, the resulting lightning current will spread through the grounding of the tower where the flashover insulator is located. This dispersion of current can lead to overvoltage effects on nearby pipelines. This study performs simulation calculations to analyze the overvoltage experienced by pipelines due to the dispersion of grounding current from the tower. Furthermore, this paper proposes a method for protecting the pipeline from such an overvoltage. Firstly, the lightning transient calculation model of a transmission line tower is constructed using the electromagnetic transient software ATP-EMTP 5.5. The model calculates the effects of lightning peak currents and soil resistivity on the distribution characteristics of lightning current in the tower, specifically in the area where the flashover insulator is located. Subsequently, a calculation model of the tower grounding grid–natural gas pipeline is developed, taking into account the distribution characteristics of lightning current in the tower. This model analyzes the impact of lightning peak currents, soil resistivity, and pipeline spacing on pipeline overvoltage. Finally, the effectiveness of the solid-state decoupler in mitigating lightning overvoltage in the pipeline is verified. The results demonstrate a positive correlation between the lightning current entering the tower grounding grid through the flashover insulator and the lightning current distribution characteristics. The solid-state decoupling device proves to be effective in reducing the voltage of the pipeline insulation layer, and the simulation results provide the optimal laying length of the bare copper wire. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes)
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12 pages, 2249 KiB  
Article
Electromagnetic Fields from Cloud-to-Cloud Horizontal Lightning Channel on Perfect Conducting Soil: Induced Potentials in Flying Aircraft
by Gabriel Asensio, Eduardo Faleiro, Jorge Moreno and Gregorio Denche
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9584; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179584 - 24 Aug 2023
Viewed by 575
Abstract
Calculation expressions for the electric and magnetic fields produced by a horizontal cloud-to-cloud lightning channel, assuming a perfectly conducted ground, are proposed in this paper. These expressions depend on the current model traveling through the channel and serve as the starting point to [...] Read more.
Calculation expressions for the electric and magnetic fields produced by a horizontal cloud-to-cloud lightning channel, assuming a perfectly conducted ground, are proposed in this paper. These expressions depend on the current model traveling through the channel and serve as the starting point to calculate the induced fields and potentials at any point in space. The derived expressions for the fields are used to calculate the induced potentials by the channel on metallic structures such as vertically driven rods in the ground and aircraft in flight. The influence of soil with finite conductivity is discussed, and an estimation of the induced potentials in this situation is proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes)
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24 pages, 45200 KiB  
Article
Validation of a Qualification Procedure Applied to the Verification of Partial Discharge Analysers Used for HVDC or HVAC Networks
by Carlos Vera, Fernando Garnacho, Joni Klüss, Christian Mier, Fernando Álvarez, Kari Lahti, Abderrahim Khamlichi, Alf-Peter Elg, Armando Rodrigo Mor, Eduardo Arcones, Álvaro Camuñas, Pertti Pakonen, Javier Ortego, José Ramón Vidal, Miran Haider, Jorge Rovira, Pascual Simon and Antonio Squicciarini
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8214; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148214 - 14 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1003
Abstract
The insulation condition of HVDC grids consisting of cable systems, GIS, and converters should be monitored by partial discharge (PD) analysers using artificial intelligence (AI) tools for efficient insulation diagnosis. Although there are many experiences of PD monitoring solutions developed for the supervision [...] Read more.
The insulation condition of HVDC grids consisting of cable systems, GIS, and converters should be monitored by partial discharge (PD) analysers using artificial intelligence (AI) tools for efficient insulation diagnosis. Although there are many experiences of PD monitoring solutions developed for the supervision of the insulation condition of HVAC grids using PD analysers, there are no standardised requirements for their qualification available yet. The international technical specification TS IEC 62478 provides general rules for PD measurements using electromagnetic methods but does not define performance requirements for qualification tests. HVDC and HVAC PD analysers must be tested by unambiguous test procedures. This paper compiles experiences of using PD analysers with HFCT sensors in HVAC grids (cable systems, GIS, and AIS) to define a qualification procedure for HVAC systems. This procedure is applicable to HVDC grids (cable systems, GIS, AIS, and converters) because the particularities related to the insulation behaviour under HVDC voltage are also considered. Representative PD sources are discussed in HVAC and HVDC positive and negative polarity. The PD pulse trend of representative insulation defects in HVDC cable systems is quite different from that of HVAC grids. Special attention should be paid to the acquisition of PD signals in HVDC grids since few pulses appear in solid insulations, mainly during voltage changes (polarity reversals or surges), but rarely in continuous operation with constant direct voltage. A synthetic PD simulator has been developed to reproduce trains of PD pulses or noise signals, similar to those that can appear in the power network. A set of three functionality tests has been developed for qualification of the diagnostic capabilities of PD analysers working up to 30 MHz addressed to HVDC or HVAC grids: (1) PD recognition test, (2) PD clustering test, and (3) PD location test. This qualification procedure has been validated by means of a round-robin test performed by five research institutes (RISE, FFII, TUDelft, TAU, and UPM) using commercial and in-development AI PD recognition and clustering tools to demonstrate its robustness and applicability. Applying this qualification procedure, two PD methods for electrical detection and prevention of insulation defects have been approved, one for HVAC and the other for HVDC grids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes)
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17 pages, 4649 KiB  
Article
Design, Modeling, and Analysis of IEEE Std 80 Earth Grid Design Refinement Methods Using ETAP
by Vuyani Michael Nicholas Dladla, Agha Francis Nnachi and Rembuluwani Philip Tshubwana
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(13), 7491; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137491 - 25 Jun 2023
Viewed by 2135
Abstract
The design of a compliant, safe, and reliable substation earth grid is not a straightforward process; in most cases, it requires some additional measures to be taken due to various constraints that differ from environment to environment, such as soil resistivity, a high [...] Read more.
The design of a compliant, safe, and reliable substation earth grid is not a straightforward process; in most cases, it requires some additional measures to be taken due to various constraints that differ from environment to environment, such as soil resistivity, a high fault level, a limited surface area, construction budget, etc. The IEEE Std 80-2013 proposes various refinement methods that can be applied to address different situations. For this study, the current limiting method, current diversion method, and touch and step voltage increment method were applied using the Electrical Transient Analysis Program (ETAP). A power system was designed, where a fault current generated by the supply transformers and back-fed by the power system’s motors was exported to the earth grid. Using this fault current, various simulations were conducted to assess the performance of the earth grid. The analysis results show that the application of the current limiting method using neutral earthing resistors has a great impact on the design of the earth grid as this method significantly reduces the fault current injected into the earth grid. Furthermore, by applying the current diversion method, the amount of fault current injected into the earth grid is reduced by a fair amount, which improves the performance of the earth grid. Lastly, increasing the tolerable limits of touch and step voltages by reducing the fault clearance times significantly improves the compliance of the earth grid as the clearance time is reduced. From this study, it is therefore concluded that, by implementing the refinement methods depending on the design requirements and feasibility of the application, one can improve the compliance state of an earth grid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grounding Systems Optimization for Low-Frequency Fault Currents and Lightning Strikes)
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