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The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New...
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The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 29214

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Filomena De Leo

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Guest Editor
Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy
Interests: biodeterioration of cultural heritage; applied microbiology; black fungi; molecular microbiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Daniela Isola

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
Interests: applied mycology; biodeterioration; biodegradation; biocides; cultural heritage low-impact cleaning methods; environmental microbiology; fungal diversity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cultural heritage in contemporary societies has a leading role in the promotion of important values such as knowledge, respect for diversity, intercultural dialogue, as well as economic and social growth. Therefore, the adoption of appropriate strategies for the preservation of cultural heritage is of the utmost importance.

Fungi occupy a wide variety of ecological niches in the biosphere (terrestrial and aquatic) and, due to their incredible metabolic versatility, significantly contribute to the deterioration of a huge number of substrates/materials, either organic or inorganic/natural or synthetic. Living on the surface, or just under it, fungi can cause serious problems, making the adoption of preventive and conservative strategies critical. Knowledge of the species involved in deterioration processes is undoubtedly useful, although not sufficient or decisive for discovering their ecological role and, above all, their involvement in deterioration processes.

Fungal control in cultural heritage artefacts is a major challenge for both biologists and restorers. The search for appropriate and efficient methods to stop or mitigate the progressive spread of fungi, while at the same time respecting the operator and the environment, is now a necessity.

With this Special Issue, we aim to publish outstanding papers with cutting-edge advances in the most advanced methods to study and control the fungi involved in the biodeterioration of cultural heritage.

Dr. Filomena De Leo
Dr. Daniela Isola
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • yeast
  • moulds
  • microfungi
  • black fungi
  • microcolonial fungi
  • lichens
  • stone monuments
  • wall paintings
  • wooden artefacts
  • waterlogged archaeological wood
  • paper
  • parchment
  • textile
  • leather
  • mummies
  • paintings
  • glass
  • biocides
  • essential oils
  • physical control methods
  • eco-friendly biocide
  • underwater archaeological site

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 187 KiB  
Editorial
The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control
by Filomena De Leo and Daniela Isola
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(20), 10490; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122010490 - 18 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1092
Abstract
Fungi are nature’s major decomposers, and they play an essential role in biogeochemical cycles [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)

Research

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20 pages, 3001 KiB  
Article
Black Fungi and Stone Heritage Conservation: Ecological and Metabolic Assays for Evaluating Colonization Potential and Responses to Traditional Biocides
by Daniela Isola, Flavia Bartoli, Paola Meloni, Giulia Caneva and Laura Zucconi
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 2038; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12042038 - 16 Feb 2022
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 2789
Abstract
Identifying species involved in biodeterioration processes is helpful, however further effort is needed to assess their ecological requirements and actual activity. Black fungi (BF) represent one of the most underestimated threats to stone cultural heritage in the Mediterranean basin; they are difficult to [...] Read more.
Identifying species involved in biodeterioration processes is helpful, however further effort is needed to assess their ecological requirements and actual activity. Black fungi (BF) represent one of the most underestimated threats to stone cultural heritage in the Mediterranean basin; they are difficult to kill or remove due to their ability to grow inside the rock and cope with several stresses. Despite this, little is known about BF and factors favoring their growth on stone surfaces. Eighteen BF species were here investigated for temperature and salt tolerance, and metabolic traits by plate assays. The relation between some highly damaged monuments and their BF settlers was assessed using X-ray diffraction analysis, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and SEM. The sensitiveness to four commonly used traditional biocides was also tested. All strains were able to grow within the range of 5–25 °C and in the presence of 3.5% NaCl. Instrumental analyses were fundamental in discovering the relation between halophilic strains and weathered marble sculptures. The acid, cellulase, esterase, and protease production recorded proved BF’s potential to produce a chemical action on carbonate stones and likely affect other materials/historical artefacts. Besides, the use of carboxymethylcellulose and Tween 20 should be evaluated in restoration practice to prevent tertiary bioreceptivity. Agar diffusion tests helped identify the most resistant species to biocides, opening the perspective of its use as reference organisms in material testing procedures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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11 pages, 3436 KiB  
Article
FTIR Spectroscopy for Identification and Intra-Species Characterization of Serpula lacrymans
by Rony Barboux, Faisl Bousta and Patrick Di Martino
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(18), 8463; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188463 - 12 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2697
Abstract
The dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans is the most destructive fungal agent of wood building materials in Europe, Russia, North America, and Japan. The identification of this wood-deteriorating agent and the discrimination of different fungal isolates is very important for the control of [...] Read more.
The dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans is the most destructive fungal agent of wood building materials in Europe, Russia, North America, and Japan. The identification of this wood-deteriorating agent and the discrimination of different fungal isolates is very important for the control of buildings in general and for the preservation of cultural heritage in particular. The objective of the study was to develop a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) method coupled with a partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) for the sample preparation and identification of S. lacrymans. Five distinct S. lacrymans strains were analysed and compared to two strains of unrelated fungal species. Different methods of mycelial growth, sample preparation, and FTIR spectral data normalisation were compared. FTIR analysis of a harvested mycelium grown on the surface of a polyether sulfone microfiltration membrane deposited on a malt extract agar medium, followed by vector normalization and PLS-DA statistical analysis, resulted in 100% correct attribution at phylum, species, and strain level, regardless of the type of standardization used. This study confirms the applicability of FTIR spectroscopy for the identification of S. lacrymans and the discrimination of different strains belonging to this species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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15 pages, 12489 KiB  
Article
Investigations of the Surface of Heritage Objects and Green Bioremediation: Case Study of Artefacts from Maramureş, Romania
by Dorina Camelia Ilieș, Nicolaie Hodor, Liliana Indrie, Paula Dejeu, Alexandru Ilieș, Adina Albu, Tudor Caciora, Marin Ilieș, Lucian Barbu-Tudoran and Vasile Grama
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(14), 6643; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11146643 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3491
Abstract
Old textiles are important elements of thecultural heritage. As a result of their composition mostly of natural elements old textiles are extremely prone to physical and chemical degradation due to fungal action. The treatments usually applied for the cleaning of heritage textiles target [...] Read more.
Old textiles are important elements of thecultural heritage. As a result of their composition mostly of natural elements old textiles are extremely prone to physical and chemical degradation due to fungal action. The treatments usually applied for the cleaning of heritage textiles target the use of synthetic fungicides, which are potentially harmful to both human health and the environment. Numerous studies highlight as an alternative to the use of conventional antifungals, the employment of essential oils and plant extracts, which are environmentally friendly and which have no adverse effects on human health. Against this background the present study aims to test six essential oils (Lavandula angustifolia, Citrus limon, Mentha piperita, Marjoram, Melaleuca alternifolia, Origanum vulgare) to establish their inhibitory effects against fungi identified on an old piece of traditional Romanian clothing from Maramureş. For the study, the types of fungi present on the objects was determined primarily through the open plates technique and microscopic identification. After identification, the essential oils were applied to the delimited surfaces, and their effects observed up to 32 days after application. The results show that these essential oils have a strong inhibitory effect on such fungal genera as Penicillinum sp., Cladosporium sp., Aspergillus spp., Candida guillermondii, Botrys sp., Mucor sp., having no observable side-effects on the physical properties of the materials concerned. The antimicrobial effects that essential oils and plant extracts have in the short term must be tested in future to ensure the enhanced preservation of heritage textiles and the health integrity of the restorers and visitors who view them in museums, collections or exhibitions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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18 pages, 1355 KiB  
Article
Diversity and Seasonal Dynamics of Airborne Fungi in Nerja Cave, Spain
by Valme Jurado, Yolanda Del Rosal, Cristina Liñan, Tamara Martin-Pozas, Jose Luis Gonzalez-Pimentel and Cesareo Saiz-Jimenez
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(13), 6236; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11136236 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2967
Abstract
Nerja Cave, Southern Spain, was revealed as an important biodiversity reservoir from which several novel species of Aspergillus were described. We carried out an aerobiological study in Nerja Cave to assess the origin of airborne fungi. This study quantified the fungi present in [...] Read more.
Nerja Cave, Southern Spain, was revealed as an important biodiversity reservoir from which several novel species of Aspergillus were described. We carried out an aerobiological study in Nerja Cave to assess the origin of airborne fungi. This study quantified the fungi present in the air of ten representative halls covering the three sectors comprising the cave: Touristic Galleries, High Galleries, and New Galleries. Microclimatological monitoring allowed us to understand the dynamic of airborne fungi in two seasons of the year (winter and summer), corresponding to the strongest and the lowest cave ventilation, and to validate the influence that the transport of airborne fungi from outside may have on the cave itself. The data show that cold air enters in winter, as confirmed by the abundant presence of Aspergillus and Penicillium spores inside and outside the cave. In summer, the abundance of some fungi in the air of Nerja Cave, which are not detected outside, indicates a stagnation or low ventilation, and therefore, the concentration of fungal spores is maxima. The high occurrence of Cladosporium outside the cave and the scarce abundance inside support the cave stagnation in this season. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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14 pages, 2564 KiB  
Article
Identification of Fungal Community Associated with Deterioration of Optical Observation Instruments of Museums in Northern Vietnam
by Cao Cuong Ngo, Quang Huy Nguyen, Thu Hoai Nguyen, Ngoc Tung Quach, Pravin Dudhagara, Thi Hanh Nguyen Vu, Thi Thanh Xuan Le, Thi Thu Hang Le, Thi Thu Hong Do, Van Duc Nguyen, Nam Trung Nguyen and Quyet-Tien Phi
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(12), 5351; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125351 - 09 Jun 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3555
Abstract
Fungi are the most harmful microorganisms responsible for the deterioration of nonmetallic materials such as glass, polymers, and composites. To date, biological aspects of glass deterioration have been poorly investigated. The present study aimed to evaluate the diversity of the fungal community colonizing [...] Read more.
Fungi are the most harmful microorganisms responsible for the deterioration of nonmetallic materials such as glass, polymers, and composites. To date, biological aspects of glass deterioration have been poorly investigated. The present study aimed to evaluate the diversity of the fungal community colonizing eyepieces of binoculars collected from museums of the northern provinces of Vietnam and the biodeterioration effects on accurate glass reproductions. A total of 40 isolates belonging to 14 genera were identified based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing, morphological features, and maximum likelihood analysis. The most abundant fungal genera included Aspergillus (43.8%) and Penicillium (31.3%). Among those detected, Byssochlamys, Curvularia, Phomopsis, Coprinellus, Perenniporia, Talaromyces, Pithomyces, Neopestalotiopsis, Trichoderma, Pleospora, and Humicola were found for the first time. Of the 40 strains tested, 8 strains showed great organic acid production, and the extent of mycelium covered from 33.6 to 46.24%. Specifically, the highest extracellular polymeric substance production was observed in Byssochlamys spectabilis BXMA1-2 (14.96 g/L), Aspergillus niger BXMA5-2 (12.17 g/L), and Aspergillus ochraceopetaliformis BMLC1-2 (9.89 g/L). Glass biodeterioration experiments revealed that the light transmission through the fungal-treated glasses was decreased by 30–42.2% as compared to the nontreated glass. In addition, the main alterations resulted from hyphal fingerprints and spots, leading to apparent damage and biocorrosion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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12 pages, 1871 KiB  
Article
Community Composition and Ex Situ Cultivation of Fungi Associated with UNESCO Heritage Monuments in the Bay of Naples
by Mariagioia Petraretti, Karl J. Duffy, Angelo Del Mondo, Antonino Pollio and Antonino De Natale
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4327; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104327 - 11 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1918
Abstract
The Bay of Naples, Italy, is renowned for its archaeological heritage. However, this heritage is threatened by the combination of weathering and the biological activity of microorganisms. Fungi are among the major agents of microbial deterioration of cultural heritage since they can cause [...] Read more.
The Bay of Naples, Italy, is renowned for its archaeological heritage. However, this heritage is threatened by the combination of weathering and the biological activity of microorganisms. Fungi are among the major agents of microbial deterioration of cultural heritage since they can cause cracks and lesions in monuments due to the penetrating force of their hyphae. Such biodeterioration may weaken the stone structures and threaten the longevity of these culturally important monuments. To address this, we collected, identified, and maintained in culture filamentous fungi that colonize the external surface of monuments at five important archaeological sites near Naples, namely Cuma, Ercolano, Nola, Oplonti, and Pompei. We isolated a total of 27 fungal taxa, all of which can be cultivated in the laboratory, and form a part of our reference collection. Many of the described fungal taxa we found belong to groups that are involved in stone biodeterioration and can thus be considered as model organisms for in vitro studies. These results emphasize the importance of identifying and cultivating fungal stock cultures for non-invasive studies on biodeterioration. Our newly developed reference collection represents a useful resource that is available to other researchers to rapidly identify potentially hazardous fungi on other monuments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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Review

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20 pages, 1799 KiB  
Review
Black Fungi on Stone-Built Heritage: Current Knowledge and Future Outlook
by Filomena De Leo, Alessia Marchetta and Clara Urzì
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3969; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083969 - 14 Apr 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3457
Abstract
Black fungi are considered as one of the main group of microorganisms responsible for the biodeterioration of stone cultural heritage artifacts. In this paper, we provide a critical analysis and review of more than 30 years of studies on black fungi isolated from [...] Read more.
Black fungi are considered as one of the main group of microorganisms responsible for the biodeterioration of stone cultural heritage artifacts. In this paper, we provide a critical analysis and review of more than 30 years of studies on black fungi isolated from stone-built heritage from 1990 to date. More than 109 papers concerning the fungal biodeterioration activity of stone were analysed. The main findings were a check list of the black fungal taxa involved in the biodeterioration of stone-built heritage, with a particular reference to meristematic black fungi, the main biodeterioration pattern attributed to them, and the methods of study including the new molecular advances. A particular focus was to discuss the current approaches to control black fungi from stone-built heritage and future perspectives. Black fungi are notoriously hard to remove or mitigate, so new methods of study and of control are needed, but it is also important to combine classical methods with new approaches to improve current knowledge to implement future conservation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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31 pages, 2658 KiB  
Review
Fungi Affecting Wall Paintings of Historical Value: A Worldwide Meta-Analysis of Their Detected Diversity
by Laura Zucconi, Fabiana Canini, Daniela Isola and Giulia Caneva
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(6), 2988; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12062988 - 15 Mar 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3083
Abstract
Wall paintings have been a cultural expression of human creativity throughout history. Their degradation or destruction represents a loss to the world’s cultural heritage, and fungi have been identified as a major contributor to their decay. We provide a critical review of fungi [...] Read more.
Wall paintings have been a cultural expression of human creativity throughout history. Their degradation or destruction represents a loss to the world’s cultural heritage, and fungi have been identified as a major contributor to their decay. We provide a critical review of fungi isolated from worldwide wall paintings between 1961–2021. One-hundred three scientific papers were reviewed focusing on fungal diversity, isolation protocols, and spatial distribution of data. The study sites were grouped into five environmental categories on the basis of the expected major microclimatic conditions (temperature, relative humidity, ventilation), and the possible relationship with the species found was investigated. The highest number of records were localized in Europe, with 38 sites on a total of 74, 20 of which were from Italy. A total of 378 fungal entries were obtained, consisting of 1209 records, belonging to 260 different species and 173 genera. The accuracy level in taxa determination was highly variable among different papers analyzed. Data showed a dominance of Ascomycota, mainly of orders Eurotiales and Hypocreales probably due to their wide distribution and easily air dispersed spores and due to the possible pitfalls linked to the isolation methods, favoring rapidly growing taxa. Statistical analyses revealed that fungal communities were not strictly linked to environmental categories with different ventilation, temperature, and humidity. Such findings may be due to the wide geographical area, the wide heterogeneity of the data, and/or the absence of standardized sampling and analyses protocols. They could also be the result of the dominance of some prevailing factors in the various sites that mask the influence one of each other. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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14 pages, 31291 KiB  
Review
Electromagnetic Field as Agent Moving Bioactive Cations. A New Antimicrobial System in Architecture Technology
by Andrzej Chlebicki, Wojciech Spisak, Marek W. Lorenc, Lucyna Śliwa and Konrad Wołowski
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(18), 8320; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188320 - 08 Sep 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1881
Abstract
There is a new described antifungal system (GALVI) involving the moving of bioactive ions of Zn, Cu and Bi for the protection of cultural heritage objects such as buildings, sculptures and stretchers. There were two kinds of galvanic cells that were used: the [...] Read more.
There is a new described antifungal system (GALVI) involving the moving of bioactive ions of Zn, Cu and Bi for the protection of cultural heritage objects such as buildings, sculptures and stretchers. There were two kinds of galvanic cells that were used: the first composed of a two-electrodes system, Zn, Cu, and second one composed of a three-electrodes system, Zn, Bi and Cu. Moreover, two-phase media are proposed with various kinds of rocks used in architectonical objects. Microorganisms inhabit the boundaries of two liquid and solid phases. This enables the investigation of the process of rock colonization. Possible applications of the suggested GALVI system are mentioned. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Fungi in Biodeterioration of Cultural Heritage: New Insights for Their Control)
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