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Animals
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Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management
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Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Zoo Animals".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2020) | Viewed by 129983

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ellen Williams

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell NG25 0QF, UK
Interests: elephants; animal welfare; animal behavior; zoo animals; social behavior; sleep behavior; personality; social network analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Samantha J. Ward

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell NG25 0QF, UK
Interests: zoo; animal welfare; human–animal interactions; human–animal relationships; husbandry
Dr. Anne Carter

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell NG25 0QF, UK
Interests: animal welfare; animal behaviour; animal physiology; heat-related illness; heatstroke

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Evidence-based zoo animal management is an ever-evolving field and one that is gaining increased recognition of importance. In order to provide animals with conditions that enable the highest welfare standards we must consider an evidence-based, forward-thinking approach to management.

In this Special Issue, we invite contributions that investigate evidence-based practice in zoo animal management and provide recommendations as to how the animal’s welfare can be maintained/improved. This Special Issue is to collate information on current evidence-based practice research that is being conducted in zoos throughout the world, in order to share best practices. The scope of this issue is wide and original manuscripts are invited on any zoo taxa. Topics may include, but are not limited to: housing design, husbandry techniques, animal management procedures, human–animal interactions, animal welfare indicators, social groupings, and out-of-hours zoo events.

Dr. Ellen Williams
Dr. Samantha J. Ward
Dr. Anne Carter
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Animal welfare
  • evidence-based
  • zoo animals
  • five domains
  • animal management
  • husbandry
  • housing design

Published Papers (21 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1611 KiB  
Article
Social Behaviour in Zoo Bachelor Groups: A Case Study of Related South American Fur Seals
by Christa Emmett, Mathilda Digby, Jemma Pope and Ellen Williams
Animals 2021, 11(9), 2682; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11092682 - 13 Sep 2021
Viewed by 2215
Abstract
Appropriate management of social groups is one of the greatest challenges that face zoos and aquaria worldwide. To facilitate breeding programmes, particularly in polygynous species, there is a need to house surplus males in bachelor groups, yet for pinnipeds, the social impact of [...] Read more.
Appropriate management of social groups is one of the greatest challenges that face zoos and aquaria worldwide. To facilitate breeding programmes, particularly in polygynous species, there is a need to house surplus males in bachelor groups, yet for pinnipeds, the social impact of this management strategy is unknown. The aim of this research was to enhance understanding of sociality in South American fur seals (SAFSs), with a particular focus on social dynamics in a related bachelor group, and consider implications for evidence-based management of this species in zoos. The subjects were four related male seals housed at Bristol Zoo Gardens. Social interaction and nearest neighbour data were collected between February and July 2019. Individuals engaged in both positive and negative social interactions. Positive interactions were more frequent than negative interactions, and no excessive negative interactions were observed. Temporal dynamics were observed in social relationships, and negative interactions did not increase with the onset of the breeding season. Reciprocity in dyadic relationships was variable across the study months, and nearest neighbours were not necessarily reflective of social partners. This research highlights the importance of longitudinal monitoring of social relationships and establishment of baseline social behaviour profiles to support evidence-based species management. We advocate that this research is extended, to further develop our understanding of SAFS social needs within zoo environments, to understand the differences between single-sex and mixed-sex groups and to identify the degree to which the extensive research conducted in other polygynous species (e.g., gorillas) is applicable in the social management of South American fur seals moving forwards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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16 pages, 421 KiB  
Article
An Exploration of the Value of Elective Health Checks in UK Zoo-Housed Gibbons
by Tawny Kershaw, Emily J. Hall, Phillipa Dobbs, Matyas Liptovszky and Victoria Strong
Animals 2020, 10(12), 2307; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122307 - 05 Dec 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2821
Abstract
Elective health checks form an important part of the preventative healthcare of many zoo-housed animals. These procedures are not without risk or financial expenditure, meaning careful cost–benefit analysis is required when determining the frequency and intensity with which they are implemented. This study [...] Read more.
Elective health checks form an important part of the preventative healthcare of many zoo-housed animals. These procedures are not without risk or financial expenditure, meaning careful cost–benefit analysis is required when determining the frequency and intensity with which they are implemented. This study evaluated the value of elective health checks (n = 74) carried out on 33 gibbons at a single UK zoological collection from 2011 to 2018. Data were categorised by health check type, animal age, clinical findings and outcome. Univariable binary logistic regression and multivariable modelling were used to identify factors associated with the likelihood of actionable (clinically significant) outcomes. In total, 51.35% of all elective health checks resulted in an actionable outcome. Elderly heath checks had 13.64 times greater odds of an actionable outcome and 34 times greater odds of a significant radiographic finding, when compared to routine (non-elderly) health checks. Our findings suggest that 75% wild longevity is a suitable threshold for identifying elderly captive gibbons and increasing health check frequency. Whilst further work is needed to ascertain whether these findings can be extrapolated to other collections and/or species, this study demonstrates how the analysis of clinical data can aid in the implementation of an effective and evidence-based preventative healthcare plan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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30 pages, 703 KiB  
Article
Widespread Behavioral Responses by Mammals and Fish to Zoo Visitors Highlight Differences between Individual Animals
by Sarah A. Boyle, Nathan Berry, Jessica Cayton, Sarah Ferguson, Allesondra Gilgan, Adiha Khan, Hannah Lam, Stephen Leavelle, Isabelle Mulder, Rachel Myers, Amber Owens, Jennifer Park, Iqra Siddiq, Morgan Slevin, Taylor Weidow, Alex J. Yu and Steve Reichling
Animals 2020, 10(11), 2108; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10112108 - 13 Nov 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6821
Abstract
The impact that humans have on zoo animals can vary based on the species of animal, exhibit design, and individual differences in behavioral responses. We independently analyzed data from 10 never-published studies that examined the impact of zoo visitors on zoo animal behavior. [...] Read more.
The impact that humans have on zoo animals can vary based on the species of animal, exhibit design, and individual differences in behavioral responses. We independently analyzed data from 10 never-published studies that examined the impact of zoo visitors on zoo animal behavior. Of the 16 species studied, 90.9% of the mammal species and 60.0% of the fish species demonstrated a change in at least one behavior based on zoo visitor abundance or visitor behavior (e.g., noise, solicitation of interactions from zoo animals). In addition, behavioral changes associated with zoo visitors were present in animals housed in exhibits where there was direct contact with zoo visitors, as well as in exhibits where there was indirect contact and no direct contact. Individuals often varied in their behavioral responses, and some individuals appeared to seek out interactions with visitors. Our findings demonstrate that short-term research projects can provide valuable insight into individual animal-level and species-level responses to visitor abundance and visitor behavior in the zoo setting. We recommend that behavioral assessments focus on the analysis of behaviors of individual animals whenever possible, and we recommend that exhibits provide areas that allow for animals to retreat from the public view. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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19 pages, 13654 KiB  
Article
A Preliminary Study Investigating the Impact of Musical Concerts on the Behavior of Captive Fiordland Penguins (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus) and Collared Peccaries (Pecari tajacu)
by Lara Fanning, Hannah Larsen and Peta S. Taylor
Animals 2020, 10(11), 2035; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10112035 - 04 Nov 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3849
Abstract
Captive animal welfare is important for establishments that exhibit species for education, conservation, and research. However, captive animals are often exposed to a number of potential stressors, such as visitors and anthropogenic noise. We aimed to identify the impact of a concert series [...] Read more.
Captive animal welfare is important for establishments that exhibit species for education, conservation, and research. However, captive animals are often exposed to a number of potential stressors, such as visitors and anthropogenic noise. We aimed to identify the impact of a concert series on the behaviour of Fiordland penguins (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus; n = 2), and solitary- (n = 1) or group- (n = 4)-housed collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu). Animal behaviour, visitor density, and visitor behaviour was monitored pre-concert (afternoons; 16:00–19:00), during the concert (evenings; 19:00–21:00), and post-concert (nights; 21:00–00:00) on concert days (penguin n = 7 days; peccary n = 8 days) and in the same periods on days when there was no concert (penguin n = 8 days; peccary n = 6 days). Fiordland penguins spent more time surface swimming and diving in the pool on concert afternoons and evenings (all p < 0.001), more time in the nest on concert nights (p < 0.001), preened less on concert afternoons and nights (p = 0.019), and engaged with their habitat less on concert evenings and nights (p = 0.002) compared to these periods on days without a concert. The group-housed peccaries slept more in the afternoon and evening (p ≤ 0.01) and were more vigilant at night (p = 0.009) on concert days compared to no-concert days. The solitary-housed peccary slept more on concert nights (p = 0.035), rested more frequently across all time periods on concert days (p < 0.001), and used the front of the enclosure more across all concert time periods (p < 0.001) compared to no-concert days. We provide evidence that behaviour was altered on event days; however, we cannot determine the nature of these changes. Further research is needed to understand the impact of music concerts on zoo animal welfare. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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20 pages, 1907 KiB  
Article
Longitudinal Improvements in Zoo-Housed Elephant Welfare: A Case Study at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo
by Katherine Finch, Fiona Sach, Malcolm Fitzpatrick, Nic Masters and Lewis J. Rowden
Animals 2020, 10(11), 2029; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10112029 - 04 Nov 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 8037
Abstract
Over the last two decades, criticisms were raised regarding the welfare experienced by elephants in European and North American zoos. Concerns regarding the welfare of zoo-housed elephants in the UK and Europe were consolidated in the publication of several key reports, and media [...] Read more.
Over the last two decades, criticisms were raised regarding the welfare experienced by elephants in European and North American zoos. Concerns regarding the welfare of zoo-housed elephants in the UK and Europe were consolidated in the publication of several key reports, and media interest peaked. Throughout this study we aim to outline the behavioural measures of welfare observed in the current group of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Zoological Society of London (ZSL) Whipsnade Zoo, using key welfare indicators for this species and comparing them to previous published work. Following the instigation of a species-specific research programme, empirical behavioural data were available to quantify any developments in care and welfare. The collection of behavioural information revealed that individuals in our study group engage in low levels of stereotypic behaviour, have formed and maintain strong associations with one another and display a high proportion of engagement in lying rest. We outline that by applying simple, low-cost methods of behavioural data collection and analysis, it is possible to collect evidence that allows us to evaluate individual level welfare. This facilitates the adoption of an evidence-based approach to zoo management as well as demonstrating compliance with updated legislation for this species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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22 pages, 1311 KiB  
Article
A Retrospective Study of Macropod Progressive Periodontal Disease (“Lumpy Jaw”) in Captive Macropods across Australia and Europe: Using Data from the Past to Inform Future Macropod Management
by Jessica Rendle, Bethany Jackson, Stephen Vander Hoorn, Lian Yeap, Kristin Warren, Rebecca Donaldson, Samantha J. Ward, Larry Vogelnest, David McLelland, Michael Lynch, Simone Vitali, Ghislaine Sayers, Fabia Wyss, Darren Webster, Ross Snipp and Rebecca Vaughan-Higgins
Animals 2020, 10(11), 1954; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10111954 - 23 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 11476
Abstract
Macropod Progressive Periodontal Disease (MPPD) is a well-recognised disease that causes high morbidity and mortality in captive macropods worldwide. Epidemiological data on MMPD are limited, although multiple risk factors associated with a captive environment appear to contribute to the development of clinical disease. [...] Read more.
Macropod Progressive Periodontal Disease (MPPD) is a well-recognised disease that causes high morbidity and mortality in captive macropods worldwide. Epidemiological data on MMPD are limited, although multiple risk factors associated with a captive environment appear to contribute to the development of clinical disease. The identification of risk factors associated with MPPD would assist with the development of preventive management strategies, potentially reducing mortality. Veterinary and husbandry records from eight institutions across Australia and Europe were analysed in a retrospective cohort study (1995 to 2016), examining risk factors for the development of MPPD. A review of records for 2759 macropods found incidence rates (IR) and risk of infection differed between geographic regions and individual institutions. The risk of developing MPPD increased with age, particularly for macropods >10 years (Australia Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR) 7.63, p < 0.001; Europe IRR 7.38, p < 0.001). Prognosis was typically poor, with 62.5% mortality reported for Australian and European regions combined. Practical recommendations to reduce disease risk have been developed, which will assist zoos in providing optimal long-term health management for captive macropods and, subsequently, have a positive impact on both the welfare and conservation of macropods housed in zoos globally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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20 pages, 1857 KiB  
Article
Specialised for the Swamp, Catered for in Captivity? A Cross-Institutional Evaluation of Captive Husbandry for Two Species of Lechwe
by Paul E. Rose and Lewis J. Rowden
Animals 2020, 10(10), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101874 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3945
Abstract
Lechwe are specialised wetland antelope that can have a strict social hierarchy or perform lekking during breeding. The southern lechwe (Kobus leche) and the Nile lechwe (K. megaceros) are both found in zoos globally, but little research is available to support husbandry decisions. [...] Read more.
Lechwe are specialised wetland antelope that can have a strict social hierarchy or perform lekking during breeding. The southern lechwe (Kobus leche) and the Nile lechwe (K. megaceros) are both found in zoos globally, but little research is available to support husbandry decisions. The aim of this research was to investigate current housing and husbandry used for these lechwe across North American and European zoos. A survey was distributed to holders in 2018 and information on 33 herds (18 Nile and 15 southern) was collected. The survey focussed on population demographics, enclosure size, biologically relevant exhibit features, mixed-species holdings, nutrition, use of environmental enrichment and performance of abnormal repetitive behaviours. Results showed that lechwe were housed in herds with similar sex ratios to wild counterparts but with a potential lack of opportunity to lek. Many zoos provided wetland, but this was rarely actively managed, and not all zoos provided cover for hiding and retreat. Current feeding practice differed significantly compared to available antelope husbandry guidelines. No consistency in amounts of pellet, forage or produce provided to lechwe across institutions was found. Abnormal repetitive behaviour was noted by several zoos, but no significant predictor of such behaviour could be identified. Despite some identifiable recognition of ecology informing lechwe management, it is important that evidence-based husbandry decisions are made based on a species’ evolutionary pathway and ecological needs and some fundamental features of lechwe husbandry do not always correlate with the adaptive traits of a specialised wetland ungulate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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33 pages, 2730 KiB  
Article
Large Lemurs: Ecological, Demographic and Environmental Risk Factors for Weight Gain in Captivity
by Emma L. Mellor, Innes C. Cuthill, Christoph Schwitzer, Georgia J. Mason and Michael Mendl
Animals 2020, 10(8), 1443; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081443 - 18 Aug 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4880
Abstract
Excessive body mass, i.e., being overweight or obese, is a health concern associated with issues such as reduced fertility and lifespan. Some lemur species are prone to extreme weight gain in captivity, yet others are not. To better understand species- and individual-level effects [...] Read more.
Excessive body mass, i.e., being overweight or obese, is a health concern associated with issues such as reduced fertility and lifespan. Some lemur species are prone to extreme weight gain in captivity, yet others are not. To better understand species- and individual-level effects on susceptibility to captive weight gain, we use two complementary methods: phylogenetic comparative methods to examine ecological explanations for susceptibility to weight gain across species, and epidemiological approaches to examine demographic and environment effects within species. Data on body masses and living conditions were collected using a survey, yielding useable data on 675 lemurs representing 13 species from 96 collections worldwide. Data on species-typical wild ecology for comparative analyses came from published literature and climate databases. We uncovered one potential ecological risk factor: species adapted to greater wild food resource unpredictability tended to be more prone to weight gain. Our epidemiological analyses on the four best-sampled species revealed four demographic and one environmental risk factors, e.g., for males, being housed with only fixed climbing structures. We make practical recommendations to help address weight concerns, and describe future research including ways to validate the proxy we used to infer body condition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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19 pages, 1219 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Impact of Behavioral Opportunities on Four Zoo-Housed Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer)
by Jennifer Hamilton, Grace Fuller and Stephanie Allard
Animals 2020, 10(8), 1433; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081433 - 17 Aug 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3524
Abstract
Evaluations of enrichment are critical to determine if an enrichment program is meeting stated goals. However, nocturnal species can present a challenge if their active periods do not align with caretakers’ schedules. To evaluate enrichment for four aardvarks housed with a natural light [...] Read more.
Evaluations of enrichment are critical to determine if an enrichment program is meeting stated goals. However, nocturnal species can present a challenge if their active periods do not align with caretakers’ schedules. To evaluate enrichment for four aardvarks housed with a natural light cycle, we provided seven different enrichment items aimed at fulfilling two behavioral goals: exploring and foraging. We wanted to understand how the aardvarks used enrichment, if enrichment promoted the defined goals, and how enrichment that achieves its goals affects welfare indicators, including rates of pacing and social behaviors, behavioral diversity, and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites. Twenty-minute observations from video were performed three times a night for a total of 224 observed hours. We found significant differences in how the aardvarks used items from the two enrichment goals throughout the night, with foraging enrichment used more than exploring at first and exploring enrichment used more later. We found that items promoted their defined goals, and aardvarks showed no evidence of habituation throughout the eight-week study. The impact on selected welfare indicators provided evidence of potentially positive changes, including increased affiliative and decreased agonistic interactions accompanying increases in goal behaviors. These results contribute to the current knowledge available on the impact of goal-directed behavioral opportunities on zoo animal welfare. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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25 pages, 4124 KiB  
Article
Social Experience of Captive Livingstone’s Fruit Bats (Pteropus livingstonii)
by Morgan J. Welch, Tessa Smith, Charlotte Hosie, Dominic Wormell, Eluned Price and Christina R. Stanley
Animals 2020, 10(8), 1321; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081321 - 30 Jul 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 10257
Abstract
Social network analysis has been highlighted as a powerful tool to enhance the evidence-based management of captive-housed species through its ability to quantify the social experience of individuals. We apply this technique to explore the social structure and social roles of 50 Livingstone’s [...] Read more.
Social network analysis has been highlighted as a powerful tool to enhance the evidence-based management of captive-housed species through its ability to quantify the social experience of individuals. We apply this technique to explore the social structure and social roles of 50 Livingstone’s fruit bats (Pteropus livingstonii) housed at Jersey Zoo, Channel Islands, through the observation of associative, affiliative, and aggressive interactions over two data collection periods. We implement binomial mixture modelling and characteristic-based assortment quantification to describe the complexity and organisation of social networks, as well as a multiple regression quadratic assignment procedural (MRQAP) test to analyse the relationship between network types. We examine the effects of individual characteristics (i.e., sex, age, and dominance rank) on social role by fitting models to explain the magnitude of node metrics. Additionally, we utilize a quadratic assignment procedural (QAP) test to assess the temporal stability of social roles over two seasons. Our results indicate that P. livingstonii display a non-random network structure. Observed social networks are positively assorted by age, as well as dominance rank. The frequency of association between individuals correlates with a higher frequency of behavioural interactions, both affiliative and aggressive. Individual social roles remain consistent over ten months. We recommend that, to improve welfare and captive breeding success, relationships between individuals of similar ages and dominance levels should be allowed to persist in this group where possible, and separating individuals that interact frequently in an affiliative context should be avoided. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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21 pages, 2807 KiB  
Article
Effect of Covering a Visitor Viewing Area Window on the Behaviour of Zoo-Housed Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor)
by Samantha J. Chiew, Kym L. Butler, Sally L. Sherwen, Grahame J. Coleman, Vicky Melfi, Alicia Burns and Paul H. Hemsworth
Animals 2020, 10(7), 1224; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10071224 - 18 Jul 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7125
Abstract
Studies on the effects of visitors on zoo animals have shown mixed findings and as a result, the manner in which visitors affect zoo animals remains unclear for many species, including a rarely studied taxa such as penguins. Penguins are a common zoo-housed [...] Read more.
Studies on the effects of visitors on zoo animals have shown mixed findings and as a result, the manner in which visitors affect zoo animals remains unclear for many species, including a rarely studied taxa such as penguins. Penguins are a common zoo-housed species and have been shown to display huddling, vigilance and avoidance towards zoo visitors which can be indicative of fear. Here, we examined the effects of covering one visitor viewing area window, out of four, on little penguin (Eudyptula minor) behaviours that may be indicative of fear. Two treatments were randomly imposed on different days: (1) The main visitor viewing area window, where most visitor-penguin interactions occurred, was uncovered (‘Main window uncovered’) and (2) The main visitor viewing area window was covered (‘Main window covered’). Penguin numbers and behaviour were recorded near the main visitor viewing area window and the three other visitor viewing area windows, as well as one area not visible to visitors (‘Corner’ area). Furthermore, visitor numbers and visitor behaviour were recorded at all four visitor viewing area windows. Covering the main visitor viewing area window reduced the proportion of visitors present at this window by about 85% (p < 0.001) and reduced potentially threatening visitor behaviours at this window such as tactile contact with the window, loud vocalisations and sudden movement (p < 0.05). When the main visitor viewing area window was covered, the proportion of penguins present increased by about 25% (p < 0.05), the proportion of visible penguins preening in the water increased by about 180% (p < 0.05) and the proportion of visible penguins vigilant decreased by about 70% (p < 0.05) in the area near this main window. A preference for the Corner area was also found whereby 59% and 49% of penguins were present in this area when the main window was uncovered and covered, respectively. These results provide limited evidence that the little penguins in this exhibit showed an aversion to the area near the main visitor viewing area window when it was uncovered based on the increased avoidance and vigilance and decreased preening in the water in this area. This suggests visitors may be fear-provoking for these little penguins. However, it is unclear whether visual contact with visitors per se or other aspects of visitor contact, such as visitor-induced sounds and vibrations, were responsible for this apparent aversion when this window was uncovered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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16 pages, 2786 KiB  
Article
Mapping Shade Availability and Use in Zoo Environments: A Tool for Evaluating Thermal Comfort
by Jason D. Wark, Natasha K. Wierzal and Katherine A. Cronin
Animals 2020, 10(7), 1189; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10071189 - 14 Jul 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5281
Abstract
For many species in zoos, particularly megafauna vulnerable to heat stress, shade is a key environmental resource. However, shade availability has received comparatively less attention than other aspects of the zoo environment. In this study, we share a simple low-cost approach that we [...] Read more.
For many species in zoos, particularly megafauna vulnerable to heat stress, shade is a key environmental resource. However, shade availability has received comparatively less attention than other aspects of the zoo environment. In this study, we share a simple low-cost approach that we applied to document shade availability across 33 zoo enclosures. We then combined these assessments with behavioral observations of enclosure use and shade-seeking behavior during summer months in a case study focused on Sichuan takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana) (n = 3), a large cold-adapted bovid. Behavioral observations were conducted before and after installation of a shade sail for the takin. Results indicated that shade availability varied widely across zoo enclosures, with the percent of shaded space ranging from 85 % to 22 % across enclosures during summer months. Shade was a dynamic resource and increased throughout the year and fluctuated across the day, with the least shade available midday. Takin showed general preferences for shaded areas near the walls of their enclosure but were observed using newly available shade from the shade sail after its installation. These accessible methods can be easily applied to assess shade within existing enclosures, evaluate enclosure modifications, and provide guidance for the design of new enclosures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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11 pages, 1190 KiB  
Article
Activity and Pool Use in Relation to Temperature and Water Changes in Zoo Hippopotamuses (Hippopotamus amphibious)
by Eduardo J. Fernandez, Martin Ramirez and Nancy C. Hawkes
Animals 2020, 10(6), 1022; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10061022 - 12 Jun 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5390
Abstract
In the wild, hippopotamuses spend much of their daily activity in the water. In zoos, it is less clear the extent to which hippos spend time in the water. We examined how much time Woodland Park Zoo’s three hippos spent in their outdoor [...] Read more.
In the wild, hippopotamuses spend much of their daily activity in the water. In zoos, it is less clear the extent to which hippos spend time in the water. We examined how much time Woodland Park Zoo’s three hippos spent in their outdoor pool, based on: (a) temperature of the pool water, and (b) when the pool water was changed (approximately three times a week). Several digital temperature data loggers collected water and air temperature readings once every hour for six months. We correlated the water temperature readings with several behaviors the hippos could engage in, where the hippos were on exhibit (pool vs. land), and how many days it had been since a dump (0, 1, or 2 days). The results indicated that water changes had little effect on pool usage, while increasing water temperatures resulted in both increased activity and pool use. The results are discussed in terms of how these findings relate to wild hippo activity, current knowledge of zoo-housed hippo welfare, and future directions for zoo-housed hippo welfare and research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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21 pages, 1770 KiB  
Article
Understanding Temporal Social Dynamics in Zoo Animal Management: An Elephant Case Study
by Ellen Williams, Samantha Bremner-Harrison, Carol Hall and Anne Carter
Animals 2020, 10(5), 882; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10050882 - 19 May 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3737
Abstract
Zoo animal management procedures which lead to changes to social groups can cause disruption in social hierarchies and the temporary breakdown of social relationships. Animals have different roles in social networks. Understanding individual positions in social networks is important for effective management and [...] Read more.
Zoo animal management procedures which lead to changes to social groups can cause disruption in social hierarchies and the temporary breakdown of social relationships. Animals have different roles in social networks. Understanding individual positions in social networks is important for effective management and ensuring positive welfare for all animals. Using elephants as a case study, the aim of this research was to investigate temporal social dynamics in zoo animals. Behavioural data were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants housed at seven zoos and safari parks in the UK and Ireland. Social interactions were defined as positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical or negative non-physical. Social network analysis explored social relationships including the fluidity of networks over time and dyadic reciprocity. Social interaction networks were found to be fluid but did not follow a seasonal pattern. Positive interaction networks tended to include the entire social group whereas negative interactions were restricted to specific individuals. Unbalanced ties were observed within dyads, suggesting potential inequalities in relationships. This could impact on individual experiences and welfare. This research highlights subtle temporal dynamics in zoo elephants with the potential for species-level differences. Similar temporal dynamics may also be present in other socially housed zoo species. This research thus provides evidence for the importance of understanding the social networks of zoo animals over longer periods of time. Understanding social networks enables pro-active and evidence-based management approaches. Further research should seek to identify the minimum sampling efforts for social networks in a range of species, to enable the implementation of regular monitoring of social networks and thus improve the welfare of social species under human care. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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8 pages, 1764 KiB  
Article
Same Space, Different Species: The Influence of Exhibit Design on the Expression of Zoo-Housed Apes’ Species-Typical Retiring Behaviors
by Samantha C. Earl, Lydia M. Hopper and Stephen R. Ross
Animals 2020, 10(5), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10050836 - 12 May 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2971
Abstract
Wild chimpanzees frequently make arboreal nests, while wild lowland gorillas typically nest on the ground. We aimed to understand whether zoo-housed apes’ use of elevated spaces for retiring similarly differed between species and across exhibits. Using a pre-planned exhibit switch at Lincoln Park [...] Read more.
Wild chimpanzees frequently make arboreal nests, while wild lowland gorillas typically nest on the ground. We aimed to understand whether zoo-housed apes’ use of elevated spaces for retiring similarly differed between species and across exhibits. Using a pre-planned exhibit switch at Lincoln Park Zoo (Chicago, USA), we compared where (elevated or terrestrial) two groups of apes (Pan troglodytes and Gorilla gorilla gorilla) performed retiring behaviors (inactive, sleeping, and nest-building behaviors). We studied a group of six chimpanzees and a group of four gorillas in two exhibits of similar size and configuration for two three-month periods (between 3 and 5 p.m.) before and after the groups switched exhibits. We predicted that chimpanzees would be more likely to retire in elevated locations compared to gorillas, irrespective of the exhibit. We found a significant effect of exhibit on where the apes retired but no effect of species, such that both species were more likely to retire in elevated locations in one exhibit but not the other. This suggests that the specific characteristics of the exhibits (e.g., number of visual barriers) influenced the expression of the apes’ retiring behaviors. These findings offer further insight in how exhibit design can influence the expression of natural behaviors in these species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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15 pages, 2385 KiB  
Article
Physical and Physiological Indicators of Welfare in Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus) Serving as Ambassador Animals
by David M. Powell, Corinne P. Kozlowski, John Clark, Alice Seyfried, Eli Baskir and Ashley D. Franklin
Animals 2020, 10(5), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10050815 - 08 May 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4320
Abstract
Special encounters that allow contact between animals and guests are common in zoos and aquariums. Visitors to the Saint Louis Zoo may touch guinea pigs serving as ambassador animals. We evaluated two welfare indicators in ambassador guinea pigs by comparing glucocorticoid levels and [...] Read more.
Special encounters that allow contact between animals and guests are common in zoos and aquariums. Visitors to the Saint Louis Zoo may touch guinea pigs serving as ambassador animals. We evaluated two welfare indicators in ambassador guinea pigs by comparing glucocorticoid levels and body weights between periods when guinea pigs lived in a habitat accessible to the public and while off exhibit. Mean glucocorticoid levels did not differ between sexes or between on- and off-exhibit periods. There was significant individual variation, and females demonstrated greater variation than males. While on exhibit, glucocorticoid levels slightly but significantly increased in males and decreased in females. Moving guinea pigs between habitats only elicited a significant glucocorticoid response when females were moved off exhibit. Temporary closures of the exhibit had no effect on glucocorticoid levels in either sex. Analyses of the impact of handling rates on males found no impact on glucocorticoid levels. Guinea pigs’ body weights were lower while on exhibit. We conclude that guinea pigs serving as ambassador animals at the Saint Louis Zoo demonstrate comparable physiological profiles while on and off exhibit and, when used in a rotational schedule, are a suitable species for animal encounters involving contact with the public. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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12 pages, 2003 KiB  
Article
Documenting Aggression, Dominance and the Impacts of Visitor Interaction on Galápagos Tortoises (Chelonoidis nigra) in a Zoo Setting
by Laura Freeland, Charlotte Ellis and Christopher J. Michaels
Animals 2020, 10(4), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040699 - 17 Apr 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5150
Abstract
Ensuring high levels of welfare is imperative for modern zoos, but such organisations must also engage visitors in order to successfully spread awareness and raise conservation funds. It is therefore important to understand the responses of animals to visitor interaction to optimise welfare. [...] Read more.
Ensuring high levels of welfare is imperative for modern zoos, but such organisations must also engage visitors in order to successfully spread awareness and raise conservation funds. It is therefore important to understand the responses of animals to visitor interaction to optimise welfare. Often, the opportunity to interact with humans may be enriching for animals, but in other contexts, this interaction may have negative welfare effects. We observed captive female Galápagos giant tortoises (Chelonoidis nigra) to describe aggressive interactions, characterize hierarchy using Elo ratings and assess the impact of visitor interactions. Elo ratings indicated that one individual was dominant over two equally ranked subordinates; aggressive interactions are discussed in this context. We detected significant effects of the presence of visitors and visitor type (keepers, vets or public) within the enclosure on aggression and activity. We suggest that previous miscategorisation of a natural behaviour (the finch response) as an operantly conditioned behaviour, rather than a fixed action pattern, may have triggered aggression. We then document changes made to the management of the animals to mitigate the impacts discovered. This work highlights the importance of empirical evidence in determining optimal management strategies for zoo animals with regards to public interactions and animal welfare. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

28 pages, 3173 KiB  
Review
Practical Management of Iron Overload Disorder (IOD) in Black Rhinoceros (BR; Diceros bicornis)
by Kathleen E. Sullivan, Natalie D. Mylniczenko, Steven E. Nelson, Jr., Brandy Coffin and Shana R. Lavin
Animals 2020, 10(11), 1991; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10111991 - 29 Oct 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4562
Abstract
Critically endangered black rhinoceros (BR) under human care are predisposed to non-hemochromatosis Iron Overload Disorder (IOD). Over the last 30 years, BR have been documented with diseases that have either been induced by or exacerbated by IOD, prompting significant efforts to investigate and [...] Read more.
Critically endangered black rhinoceros (BR) under human care are predisposed to non-hemochromatosis Iron Overload Disorder (IOD). Over the last 30 years, BR have been documented with diseases that have either been induced by or exacerbated by IOD, prompting significant efforts to investigate and address this disorder. IOD is a multi-factorial chronic disease process requiring an evidence-based and integrative long-term approach. While research continues to elucidate the complexities of iron absorption, metabolism, and dysregulation in this species, preventive treatments are recommended and explained herein. The aim of this report is to highlight the accumulated evidence in nutrition, clinical medicine, and behavioral husbandry supporting the successful management of this disorder to ensure optimal animal health, welfare, and longevity for a sustainable black rhinoceros population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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17 pages, 477 KiB  
Review
Behavioral Diversity as a Potential Indicator of Positive Animal Welfare
by Lance J. Miller, Greg A. Vicino, Jessica Sheftel and Lisa K. Lauderdale
Animals 2020, 10(7), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10071211 - 16 Jul 2020
Cited by 87 | Viewed by 12722 | Correction
Abstract
Modern day zoos and aquariums continuously assess the welfare of their animals and use evidence to make informed management decisions. Historically, many of the indicators of animal welfare used to assess the collection are negative indicators of welfare, such as stereotypic behavior. However, [...] Read more.
Modern day zoos and aquariums continuously assess the welfare of their animals and use evidence to make informed management decisions. Historically, many of the indicators of animal welfare used to assess the collection are negative indicators of welfare, such as stereotypic behavior. However, a lack of negative indicators of animal welfare does not demonstrate that an individual animal is thriving. There is a need for validated measures of positive animal welfare and there is a growing body of evidence that supports the use of behavioral diversity as a positive indicator of welfare. This includes an inverse relationship with stereotypic behavior as well as fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and is typically higher in situations thought to promote positive welfare. This review article highlights previous research on behavioral diversity as a potential positive indicator of welfare. Details are provided on how to calculate behavioral diversity and how to use it when evaluating animal welfare. Finally, the review will indicate how behavioral diversity can be used to inform an evidence-based management approach to animal care and welfare. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

1 pages, 161 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Miller et al. Behavioral Diversity as a Potential Indicator of Positive Animal Welfare. Animals 2020, 10, 1211
by Lance J. Miller, Greg A. Vicino, Jessica Sheftel and Lisa K. Lauderdale
Animals 2023, 13(12), 1904; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13121904 - 07 Jun 2023
Viewed by 518
Abstract
In the original publication [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
19 pages, 2154 KiB  
Perspective
Can Zoos Ever Be Big Enough for Large Wild Animals? A Review Using an Expert Panel Assessment of the Psychological Priorities of the Amur Tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) as a Model Species
by Jake Stuart Veasey
Animals 2020, 10(9), 1536; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10091536 - 31 Aug 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 16866
Abstract
The ecology of large, wide-ranging carnivores appears to make them vulnerable to conservation challenges in the wild and welfare challenges in captivity. This poses an ethical dilemma for the zoo community and supports the case that there is a need to reconsider prevailing [...] Read more.
The ecology of large, wide-ranging carnivores appears to make them vulnerable to conservation challenges in the wild and welfare challenges in captivity. This poses an ethical dilemma for the zoo community and supports the case that there is a need to reconsider prevailing management paradigms for these species in captivity. Whilst the welfare challenges wide ranging carnivores face have been attributed to reduced ranging opportunities associated with the decreased size of captive habitats, attempts to augment wild carnivore welfare in captivity typically focus on behaviours linked to hunting. Thus far, this has yet to result in the systematic elimination of signs of compromised welfare amongst captive carnivores. Here an assessment is carried out to identify the likely welfare priorities for Amur tigers, which, as one of the widest ranging terrestrial carnivores, serves as an excellent exemplar for species experiencing extreme compression of their ranging opportunities in captivity. These priorities are then used to consider novel strategies to address the welfare challenges associated with existing management paradigms, and in particular, attempt to overcome the issue of restricted space. The insights generated here have wider implications for other species experiencing substantive habitat compression in captivity. It is proposed here that the impact of habitat compression on captive carnivore welfare may not be a consequence of the reduction in habitat size per se, but rather the reduction in cognitive opportunities that likely covary with size, and that this should inform strategies to augment welfare. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evidence-Based Practice in Zoo Animal Management)
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