AgriEngineering, Volume 4, Issue 3 (September 2022) – 14 articles

Broiler feeding is an efficient way of evaluating growth performance, health, and welfare status. This assessment might include the number of meals, meal period, ingestion rate, meal intervals, and the proportion of time spent eating. These parameters can be predicted by studying the birds’ pecking activity. The present study aims to design, examine, and validate classifying algorithms to determine individual bird pecking patterns at the feeder. Broilers were reared from 1 to 42 days, with feed and water provided ad libitum. A feeder equipped with a force sensor was installed and used by the birds starting at 35 days of age, to acquire the pecking force data during feeding until 42 days. The obtained data were organized into two datasets. The first comprises 17 attributes, with the supervised attribute ‘pecking detection’ with two classes, and with ‘non-pecking’ and ‘pecking’ used to analyze the classifiers. In the second dataset, the attribute ‘maximum value’ was discretized in three classes to compose a new supervised attribute of the second dataset comprising the classes’ non-pecking, light pecking, medium, and strong. We developed and validated the classifying models to determine individual broiler pecking patterns at the feeder. The classifiers (KNN, SVM, and ANN) achieved high accuracy, greater than 97%, and similar results in all investigated scenarios, proving capable of performing the task of detecting pecking. Full article

Nowadays, there are several methods of controlling a robot depending on the type of agricultural environment in which it operates. In order to perform a complete agricultural task, this paper proposes a switching strategy between several perception/control approaches, allowing us to select the most appropriate one at any given time. This strategy is presented using an electrical tractor and three control approaches we have developed: path tracking, edge following and furrow pursuing. The effectiveness of the proposed development is tested through full-scale experiments in realistic field environments, performing autonomous navigation and weeding operations in an orchard and an open field. The commutation strategy allows us to select behavior depending on the context, with a good robustness with respect to different sizes of crops (maize and bean). The accuracy stays within ten centimeters, allowing us to expect the use of robots to help with the development of agroecological principles. Full article

Significant losses in agricultural production are due to abiotic stresses, such as herbicide phytotoxicity. Dicamba (diglycolamine salt) is a herbicide used for post-emergent control of broadleaf weeds. It has a possibility to vapor-spread into neighboring fields causing damage to other crops. However, not every stress can be easily identified. Therefore, remote sensing has the potential as a new tool in early injury detection. This study evaluated the effects of simulated dicamba drift on the occurrence of phytotoxicity in soybeans (Glycine max). Soybean was assessed in seven dicamba doses (0, 0.056, 0.56, 5.6, 11.2, 28, 112 g ha⁻¹) for changes in plant injury (scale of notes), spectral aspects (triangular greenness index (TGI), and shoot dry mass. The plants were photographed using a digital camera positioned at 1.2 m above the planting media level. The results indicate a positive effect of low dicamba doses (0.56 and 0.056 g a.e. ha⁻¹) on TGI canopy distinction and shoot dry mass. Soybean TGI canopy distinction and the injury scale estimated at 45 days after sowing, and the soybean shoot dry mass observed at 99 days after sowing, presented significant and moderate Pearson’s r coefficient of correlations (r = −0.609 and 0.625), indicating TGI as a valid and practical spectral index for plant dicamba-injured evaluations. Full article

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is a key agrometeorological index for rational irrigation management. The standard method for ETo estimation, proposed by the FAO, is based on a complicated Penman–Monteith equation and requires many meteorological inputs, making it difficult for practical use by farmers. At present, there are many alternative simplified approaches for ETo estimation; most of them are directed at cutting the number of required meteorological inputs for calculation. Among them, special attention should be paid to the various temperature-based methods of ETo assessment. One of the temperature-based models for ETo computation was realized in the free mobile app ETo Calculator (Ukraine). The app gives Ukrainian farmers an opportunity to assess ETo values on a daily or monthly scale using mean air temperature, obtained through free online meteorological forecasts and archive services, as the only input. The objective of the study was to test the app’s accuracy compared to FAO-based calculations in five key regions of Ukraine, each representing a particular climatic zone of the country. It was established that the app provides relatively good accuracy of ETo estimation even in raw (not adjusted to wind speed and relative air humidity) runs. The results of the statistical comparison with the FAO-calculated values on the daily scale are as follows: R² within 0.82–0.87, RMSE within 0.74–0.81 mm, MAE within 0.60–0.70 mm, MAPE within 18.07–25.50%, depending on the region. The results of the statistical comparison with the FAO-calculated values on the monthly scale are: R² within 0.88–0.95, RMSE within 0.50–0.72 mm, MAE within 0.33–0.59 mm, MAPE within 8.96–24.08% depending on the region. The ETo Calculator (Ukraine) is a good alternative to the complicated Penman–Monteith method and could be recommended for Ukrainian farmers to be used for irrigation management. Full article

Precision viticulture employs various sensors for assessing nondestructively key parameters in vineyards. One of the most promising technologies for this purpose is the laser scanner sensor. Laser scanner uses the LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) method for the calculation of the distance from the sensor. However, the number of cultivation operations affects the credibility of sensors such as the laser scanner. The main aim of this study was to assess a laser scanner sensor at different measurement settings for estimating pruning wood parameters on two wine grape cultivars (Sauvignon Blanc and Syrah) that received different numbers of farming interventions. The experiment was conducted in the two vineyards situated in the same farm for two successive years (2014 and 2015). The results indicated that the use of a laser scanner in the Syrah vineyard presented more accurate results (r = 0.966 in 2014 and r = 0.806 in 2015) when compared to the Sauvignon Blanc one (r = 0.839 in 2014 and r = 0.607 in 2015) regarding pruning wood parameters estimation. Different measurement settings and weather conditions had different effects on the accuracy of the sensor. It can be concluded that the laser scanner is a very helpful sensor for estimating pruning wood parameters in vineyards. Full article

Freestanding high tunnels are cost-effective, plastic film-covered growing structures that use very little to no modern environmental control technology. Natural ventilation is used to control temperature and humidity. Typically, ventilation openings are created along the sides by manually rolling up a section of the plastic film cover. While common on greenhouses, roof vents are not typically part of high tunnel designs used in the United States. This paper focuses on high tunnel ventilation during the summer, when maximizing the air exchange rate results in a low differential between inside and outside air temperatures. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were used to evaluate the effects of several roof vent designs on the air flow rate through the high tunnel and the inside air temperature. The CFD models were developed and validated using environmental data collected at the Pennsylvania State University High Tunnel Research and Education Facility (Rock Springs, PA, USA). Five ventilation designs were simulated using a commercial CFD software package that was augmented with a radiation and crop architecture model. A root mean square error of 0.87 °C was found between the measured and simulated high tunnel temperatures (n = 144). The designs with roof vents were found to increase mass-based ventilation rates through the high tunnel by 20% to 78%. However, they did not lower inside air temperature more than 0.1 °C compared to the traditional design with roll-up side vents only. Additional research is needed to evaluate whether the control of other environmental parameters and weather conditions warrants the use of high tunnel roof vents, especially for humidity control and the combination of high temperature with low wind speed conditions. Full article

The present study observed whether environmental enrichment (music and strobe light) influenced farm-housed broiler chickens’ behavior. The trial was carried out on a commercial broiler farm from 21 to 35 days of growth. The sound stimulus consisted of playing a classical music track every day for an approximate length of 6 min, played five times a day for six weeks starting from the birds’ first day of age. The light stimuli came from a colored (red and green ground-projected dots) light-emitting diode (LED) strobe projector used after the musical stimulation. The broilers’ reaction was recorded (from day 21 through day 35), and individual bird behaviors were classified into welfare and stress. The birds’ ability to walk was measured using a gait score scale, and the degree of incidence of pododermatitis was verified. Environmental enrichment with light stimulus increased natural behavior in broiler chickens, such as eating, stretching, ground pecking, and flapping wings (p < 0.05). Broiler chickens tended to walk less in the housing with music stimuli (p < 0.05). In general, the environmental stimuli provided the birds with better walking ability but increased the incidence of pododermatitis (p < 0.01). We observed that the light stimulus left the birds more active; they foraged more and lay less when compared to the birds submitted to musical stimuli and the control. However, we also observed an increase in the frequency of stress-indicating behaviors in the environment under light stimulation. It is unclear whether broilers liked the tested stimuli of music and light in the scenarios studied. The enrichment with light or music apparently increased flock stress in 21- and 28-day-old broilers, with some benefit being observed only in 35-day-old broilers. Full article

Agricultural tractor drivers’ health preservation and comfort represent important aspects of the evolution of agricultural machinery and led to the development of devices aimed at improving working conditions, such as soundproof cab and driver seat suspension, nowadays commonly adopted in tractors. The vibrations are one of the factors mostly affecting health and comfort conditions, resulting from the characteristics and interaction of specific tractor’s parts (tyres, axles, chassis, cab). Trying to improve their products, manufacturers developed a cab prototype equipped with an automatic self-levelling system, whose goal is to maintain the driver’s vertebral column in a correct position during heavy agricultural operations such as primary soil tillage. A tractor with a such a prototype was tested to assess its effectiveness in maintaining the cab horizontal and any effects on the transmitted levels of whole-body vibration, during soil primary tillage carried out by means of a mouldboard plough and a subsoiling plough, both in plain and hilly surfaces. The results showed that the device worked well at a slope lower than the operating limits of the system, keeping the cabin horizontal through progressive adjustments. A slight reduction of the level of vibration was observed with a self-levelling system working during the tillage tests in the plain, compared to the traditional condition. Full article

Robotics has been increasingly relevant over the years. The ever-increasing demand for productivity, the reduction of tedious labor, and safety for the operator and the environment have brought robotics to the forefront of technological innovation. The same principle applies to agricultural robots, where such solutions can aid in making farming easier for the farmers, safer, and with greater margins for profit, while at the same time offering higher quality products with minimal environmental impact. This paper focuses on reviewing the existing state of the art for vision-based perception in agricultural robots across a variety of field operations; specifically: weed detection, crop scouting, phenotyping, disease detection, vision-based navigation, harvesting, and spraying. The review revealed a large interest in the uptake of vision-based solutions in agricultural robotics, with RGB cameras being the most popular sensor of choice. It also outlined that AI can achieve promising results and that there is not a single algorithm that outperforms all others; instead, different artificial intelligence techniques offer their unique advantages to address specific agronomic problems. Full article

Smartphone application usage has increased exponentially over the past decade. The potentiality of smartphone applications as a tool for various decision-making processes is not fully explored, especially in the field of agriculture. This work systematically evaluates smartphone applications developed by research institutes and non-profit organizations and made available to Indian agriculture stakeholders, who have the world’s largest user base. The study analyzed 25 smartphone applications developed for the agriculture and allied sectors available to the Indian farming community. The usability, accessibility, frequency of updates, user ratings, and number of downloads of smartphone applications are systematically evaluated. Furthermore, this article assesses the divergence between existing smartphone applications and the needs of agricultural stakeholders. This research necessitates the importance of systematic evaluation of digital applications available to the end-users and offers guidelines to application developers, researchers, and policymakers on the potential shortcomings of prevailing smartphone applications and warrants features for future smartphone applications. Full article

The transformation and upgrading of traditional agriculture are required to address its shortcomings and deficiencies, which have resulted in environmental pollution or water problems. Precision agriculture emerged at the historic moment to solve the current problems. Field information collection, information management and decision-making, and execution systems are the three key links of precision fertilization and irrigation. The technical principle and application of field information acquisition systems are analyzed. The information management and decision-making system describes the management and summary of information in crop growth. The execution system combines the knowledge of various disciplines and experts for targeted applications to specific crops. It further focuses on the core implementation system, that is, variable fertilization technology and variable spraying technology that can realize variable operations. Major contributions from different countries, institutions, corresponding authors, and journals are presented in detail. This study proposes several suggestions and ideas based on the research status and progress of the three key systems to provide a theoretical basis and technical support for the research and development of key technologies and innovative devices of precision agricultural fertilization and irrigation. Full article

Annual cane pruning of grape vineyards is a time-consuming and labor-intensive job, but no mechanized or automatic way has been developed to do it yet. Robotic pruning can be a perfect alternative to human labor. This article proposes a systematic seven-stage procedure to design a kinematically optimized manipulator, named ‘Prubot’, to manage vineyards’ cane pruning. The manipulator structure was chosen, resulting in a 7R (Revolute) manipulator with a spherical shoulder and wrist. To obtain the design constraints, the manipulator task space was modeled. The robot’s second and third link lengths were determined by optimizing the global translational version of the measure of manipulability and the measure of isotropy of the manipulator arm section. Finally, simulations confirmed the appropriateness of the manipulator workspace. Furthermore, sampling-based path planning simulations were carried out to evaluate the manipulator’s kinematic performance. Results illustrated the impressive kinematic performance of the robot in terms of path planning success rate ($\cong 100\%$). The simulations also suggest that among the eight single-query sampling-based path planning algorithms used in the simulations, Lazy RRT and KPIECE are the best ($\le 5 \mathrm{s} \& ~100\%$) and worst $\left(\ge 5 \mathrm{s} \&\le 25\%\right)$ path planning algorithms for such a robot in terms of computation time and success rate, respectively. The procedure proposed in this paper offers a foundation for the kinematic and task-based design of a cane pruning manipulator. It could be promisingly used for designing similar agricultural manipulators. Full article

Several trials have been carried out by various authors concerning autonomous mowers, which are battery-powered machines. The effects of these machines on turfgrass quality and energy consumption have been thoroughly investigated. However, there are still some aspects that have not been studied. Among these, random trajectory overlapping is one of the most important. To investigate these aspects, two RTK-GPS devices along with the custom-built software used for previous trials has been upgraded in order to precisely calculate how many times the mower drives over the same spot using random trajectories. This parameter, the number of passages in the same position, was hypothesized to explain the autonomous mower’s overlapping and trampling action. The trial has been carried out testing a commercial autonomous mower on three areas with different levels of complexity to assess its performances. The following variables were examined: the percentage of mowed area, the distance travelled, the number of intersections, the number of passages, and the autonomous mower’s work efficiency. The average percentage of area mown (average value for the three areas) was 54.64% after one hour and 80.15% after two hours of work. Percentage of area mown was 15% higher for the area with no obstacles after two hours of work. The number of passages was slightly different among the three garden designs. The garden with no obstacles obtained the highest number of passages with an average of 37 passages. The highest working efficiency was obtained in the garden with an intermediate number of obstacles with a value of 0.40 after two hours of work. The estimated energy consumption resulted 0.31 Wh m⁻² after one hour and 0.42 Wh m⁻² after two hours of working. These results highlight how the correct settings of cutting time may be crucial to consistently save energy during the long period and may be useful for a complete automation of the maintenance of green areas. Full article

In this work, a series of experiments on the retention of B1 (riboflavin), B2 (thiamine) and B3 (nicotinic acid) vitamins in the HILIC and RPLC conditions have been performed involving the effects of organic modifier type and content, pH of the eluent and buffering salt (ammonium acetate) concentration in the mobile phase as well as temperature of the system. For the needs of this study, three columns of different features have been chosen: Acclaim™ Mixed–Mode HILIC–1 (Dionex, Sunnyvale, CA, USA), Eurospher II 100–5 HILIC (Knauer, Berlin, Germany) and the RPLC column Nucleodur^® C18 Gravity-SB (Macherey-Nagel, Duren, Germany). The influence of acetonitrile and methanol content in the eluent and process temperature have been tested and, based on that, the most promising systems have been selected regarding the possible separation of the vitamin mixture. Both the pH and buffering salt concentrations in the eluent have been adjusted in order to indicate the most effective system, which turned out to be the one involving the Nucleodur column and the eluent with 90% methanol, at pH 6 and C_buff = 20 mmol/dm³, which enables separation of the mixture within a time as short as 2.5 min at a 1.0 mL/s flowrate in isocratic conditions. Full article