Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing

16 pages, 17317 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selective Laser Sintering Induced Residual Stresses: Precision Measurement and Prediction

by Susan Impey, Prateek Saxena and Konstantinos Salonitis

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030101 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2443

Additive Manufacturing presents unique advantages over traditional manufacturing processes and has the potential to accelerate technical advancement across multiple sectors, permitting far greater freedom in design than conventional manufacturing. However, one barrier which blocks wide adoption is residual stresses, which could seriously affect [...] Read more.

Additive Manufacturing presents unique advantages over traditional manufacturing processes and has the potential to accelerate technical advancement across multiple sectors, permitting far greater freedom in design than conventional manufacturing. However, one barrier which blocks wide adoption is residual stresses, which could seriously affect the materials’ behaviour during and after production. Selective laser sintering (SLS), a process with high energy input to the workpiece material, induces high temperature gradients, further affecting the final residual stress distribution. Within the present paper, three different methods for the assessment of the residual stresses’ distribution are presented and compared: a non-destructive method based on neutron diffraction, a destructive method known as the contour method, and a theoretical approach based on Finite Element Analysis. The aim is to examine the suitability and reliability of the application of these methods in predicting residual stresses distribution in additive manufacturing-built parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Micro and Nanomanufacturing)

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15 pages, 5969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Influence of Tool Rake Angles on Machining of Inconel 718

by Dongdong Xu, Liang Ding, Yang Liu, Jinming Zhou and Zhirong Liao

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030100 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3111

Abstract

It is essential for superalloys (e.g., Inconel 718) to obtain an anticipated surface integrity after machining, especially for safety critical areas (e.g., aerospace). As one of the main characteristics for cutting tools, the rake angle has been recognized as a key factor that [...] Read more.

It is essential for superalloys (e.g., Inconel 718) to obtain an anticipated surface integrity after machining, especially for safety critical areas (e.g., aerospace). As one of the main characteristics for cutting tools, the rake angle has been recognized as a key factor that can significantly influence the machining process. Although there are large research interests and outcomes in the machining of nickel-based superalloys, most of them focus on the surface integrity and macroscale temperature observation, whereas the temperature distribution in the tool rake face is not clear. Thus, it is necessary to investigate the basic role of rake angles and the tool–workpiece interaction mechanism to determine the machining condition variations and surface integrity. In the present study, both experimental and numerical methods are employed to explore the cutting force, thermal distribution, and shear angles during the process and the metallurgy characteristics of the subsurface after machining, as well as the mechanical properties. The research has emphasized the importance of rake angles on both the cutting process and machined surface integrity, and has revealed the microscale temperature distribution in the tool rake face, which is believed to have a close relationship with the tool crater wear. In addition, it is clearly presented that the surface generated with positive rake angle tools generates the minimum subsurface deformation and less strain hardening on the workpiece. Full article

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21 pages, 40851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Minimisation of Pose-Dependent Regenerative Vibrations for 5-Axis Milling Operations

by Ines Wilck, Andreas Wirtz, Torben Merhofe, Dirk Biermann and Petra Wiederkehr

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030099 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

The machining of free-formed surfaces, e.g., dies or moulds, is often affected by tool vibrations, which can affect the quality of the workpiece surface. Furthermore, in 5-axis milling, the dynamic properties of the system consisting of the tool, spindle and machine tool can [...] Read more.

The machining of free-formed surfaces, e.g., dies or moulds, is often affected by tool vibrations, which can affect the quality of the workpiece surface. Furthermore, in 5-axis milling, the dynamic properties of the system consisting of the tool, spindle and machine tool can vary depending on the tool pose. In this paper, a simulation-based methodology for optimising the tool orientation, i.e., tilt and lead angle of simultaneous 5-axis milling processes, is presented. For this purpose, a path finding algorithm was used to identify process configurations, that minimise tool vibrations based on pre-calculated simulation results, which were organised using graph theory. In addition, the acceleration behaviour of the feed drives, which limits the ability of adjusting the tool orientation with a high adaption frequency, as well as potential collisions of the tool, tool chuck and spindle with the workpiece were considered during the optimisation procedure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Modelling of Machining Operations)

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19 pages, 6352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pulsed Mechanical Surface Treatment—An Approach to Combine the Advantages of Shot Peening, Deep Rolling, and Machine Hammer Peening

by Daniel Meyer, Matthias Hettig and Nicole Mensching

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030098 - 07 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2372

Abstract

Several manufacturing processes are used to beneficially influence the surface and subsurface properties of manufactured parts. Different aspects such as the surface topography or resulting residual stresses are addressed using different manufacturing processes. This paper presents the first approach for pulsed mechanical surface [...] Read more.

Several manufacturing processes are used to beneficially influence the surface and subsurface properties of manufactured parts. Different aspects such as the surface topography or resulting residual stresses are addressed using different manufacturing processes. This paper presents the first approach for pulsed mechanical surface treatment (PMST), a new manufacturing process aiming to combine the mechanics used in deep rolling and shot or hammer peening. The process can generate a defined surface topography while constantly impinging a mechanical impact on the workpiece. Two different tools (type 1 and type 2) have been designed to approach this new concept. Hardened carbide pins are used for type 1 to prove the concept using a simpler kinematic and resulting in a burnishing-like process. For type 2, hardened roller is used and results in an actual rolling process. Specimens made of S235 are processed in experiments with tool type 1 with varying pulse frequency and feeds. The resulting surface topography is described using optical measurement systems while micro-hardness measurements are used to describe the subsurface properties. The results in general show an increase of hardness in the surface and subsurface layer while the resulting surface topography can be directly controlled by the process parameters and therefore be designed for specific functional properties. Full article

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23 pages, 3493 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Friction Stir Processing on the Tribological, Corrosion, and Erosion Properties of Steel: A Review

by Alessandro M. Ralls, Ashish K. Kasar and Pradeep L. Menezes

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030097 - 03 Sep 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3785

Abstract

The eventual material degradation of steel components in bio-implant, marine, and high-temperature applications is a critical issue that can have widespread negative ramifications from a safety and economic point of view. Stemming from their tribological, corrosion, and erosion-based properties, there is an increasing [...] Read more.

The eventual material degradation of steel components in bio-implant, marine, and high-temperature applications is a critical issue that can have widespread negative ramifications from a safety and economic point of view. Stemming from their tribological, corrosion, and erosion-based properties, there is an increasing need to address these issues effectively. As one solution, surface processing techniques have been proposed to improve these properties. However, common techniques tend to suffer from issues spanning from their practicality to their high costs and negative environmental impacts. To address these issues, friction-stir-processing (FSP) has been one technique that has been increasingly utilized due to its cost effective, non-polluting nature. By inducing large amounts of strain and plastic deformation, dynamic recrystallization occurs which can largely influence the tribological, corrosion, and erosion properties via surface hardening, grain refinement, and improvement to passive layer formation. This review aims to accumulate the current knowledge of steel FSP and to breakdown the key factors which enable its metallurgical improvement. Having this understanding, a thorough analysis of these processing variables in relation to their tribological, corrosion, and erosion properties is presented. We finally then prospect future directions for this research with suggestions on how this research can continue to expand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anniversary Review and Feature Papers)

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17 pages, 8459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examples of How Increased Formability through High Strain Rates Can Be Used in Electro-Hydraulic Forming and Electromagnetic Forming Industrial Applications

by Gilles Avrillaud, Gilles Mazars, Elisa Cantergiani, Fabrice Beguet, Jean-Paul Cuq-Lelandais and Julien Deroy

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030096 - 01 Sep 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3301

Abstract

In order to take up some challenges in metal forming coming from the recent environmental stakes, Electromagnetic Forming and Electro-Hydraulic Forming processes have been developed at the industrial scale, using the advantages of high strain rates. Such progress has been possible in particular [...] Read more.

In order to take up some challenges in metal forming coming from the recent environmental stakes, Electromagnetic Forming and Electro-Hydraulic Forming processes have been developed at the industrial scale, using the advantages of high strain rates. Such progress has been possible in particular thanks to the emergence of strongly coupled simulation tools. In this article, some examples have been selected from some industrial applications in deep forming, postforming, embossing, and complex shapes forming. It shows how in particular, the increase in formability can bring benefits to solve customer issues in the automotive, luxury packaging, aeronautic, and particles accelerator sectors. Some simulation results are presented to explain how this highly dynamic forming occurs for each of these applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impulse-Based Manufacturing Technologies)

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17 pages, 4140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Computational Investigation of Lattice Sandwich Structures Constructed by Additive Manufacturing Technologies

by Nikolaos Kladovasilakis, Paschalis Charalampous, Konstantinos Tsongas, Ioannis Kostavelis, Dimitrios Tzetzis and Dimitrios Tzovaras

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030095 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4684

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies offer the ability to construct complex geometrical structures in short manufacturing lead time coupled with a relatively low production cost when compared to traditional manufacturing processes. The next trend in mechanical engineering design is the adaption of design strategies [...] Read more.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies offer the ability to construct complex geometrical structures in short manufacturing lead time coupled with a relatively low production cost when compared to traditional manufacturing processes. The next trend in mechanical engineering design is the adaption of design strategies that build products with lightweight lattice geometries like sandwich structures. These structures possess low mass, large surface area to volume ratio, high porosity, and adequate mechanical behavior, which are properties of great importance in scientific fields such as bioengineering, automotive, and aerospace engineering. The present work is focused on producing sandwich structures with complex lattice patterns like the Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) Schwarz diamond structure. The specimens were manufactured with two different Additive Manufacturing procedures employing various relative densities. More specifically, Material Jetting Printing (MJP) and Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) processes were employed to investigate the performance of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) lightweight lattice structures. These structures were examined using digital microscopy in order to measure the dimensional accuracy and the surface characteristics of the utilized AM technologies. Furthermore, three-point bending tests and finite elements analyses have been applied to investigate the mechanical performance of the proposed technologies and designs as well as the influence of the relative density on the Schwarz diamond TPMS structure. The experimental results demonstrate that the investigated structure possesses a remarkable performance in respect to its weight due to the specific distribution of its material in space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Direct Digital Manufacturing with Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing)

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16 pages, 3094 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Surface Qualification Toolpath Optimization for Hybrid Manufacturing

by Austen Thien, Christopher Saldana and Thomas Kurfess

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030094 - 27 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2673

Abstract

Hybrid manufacturing machine tools have great potential to revolutionize manufacturing by combining both additive manufacturing (AM) and subtractive manufacturing (SM) processes on the same machine tool. A prominent issue that can occur when going from AM to SM is that the SM process [...] Read more.

Hybrid manufacturing machine tools have great potential to revolutionize manufacturing by combining both additive manufacturing (AM) and subtractive manufacturing (SM) processes on the same machine tool. A prominent issue that can occur when going from AM to SM is that the SM process toolpath does not account for geometric discrepancies caused by the previous AM step, which leads to increased production times and tool wear, particularly when wire-based directed energy deposition (DED) is used as the AM process. This work discusses a methodology for approximating a part’s surface topology using on-machine contact probing and formulating an optimized SM toolpath using the surface topology approximation. Three different geometric surface approximations were used: triangular, trapezoidal, and a hybrid of both. SM toolpaths were created using each geometric approximation and assessed according to three objectives: reducing total machining time, reducing surface roughness, and reducing cutting force. Different prioritization scenarios of the optimization goals were also investigated. The optimal surface approximation that yielded the most improvement in the optimization was determined to be the hybrid surface topology approximation. Furthermore, it was shown that when the machining time or cutting force optimization goals were prioritized, there was little improvement in the other optimization goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Direct Digital Manufacturing with Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing)

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18 pages, 12511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on Fatigue Response of Aluminum Alloy Friction Stir Welded Joints at Various Post-Processing and Treatments

by Soran Hassanifard and Ahmad Varvani-Farahani

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030093 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2690

Abstract

The present study examines the fatigue of friction stir welded (FSW) aluminum 6061, 7075, 1060 joints followed by (i) in situ and sequential rolling (SR) processes, (ii) plastic burnishing (iii) solution-treatment artificial aging (STA), (iv) local alloying through depositing thin copper foils, and [...] Read more.

The present study examines the fatigue of friction stir welded (FSW) aluminum 6061, 7075, 1060 joints followed by (i) in situ and sequential rolling (SR) processes, (ii) plastic burnishing (iii) solution-treatment artificial aging (STA), (iv) local alloying through depositing thin copper foils, and (v) inserting alumina powder in the weld nugget zone (NZ). The microstructural features and fatigue life of post-processed joints were compared with those of as-welded joints. The in situ rolling technique offered simultaneous rolling and welding operations of aluminum joints, while through the sequential rolling process, the top surface of FSW joints was rolled after the welding process. The fatigue life of in situ rolled samples was increased as the ball diameter of welding tool increased. The fatigue life of friction stir welded joints after a low-plasticity burnishing process was noticeably promoted. The addition of 1 wt.% alumina in the NZ of joints resulted in a significant elevation on fatigue life of friction stir spot welded joints, while an increase in alumina powder to 2.5 wt.% adversely affected fatigue strength. Weld NZ was alloyed through the insertion of copper foils between the faying surfaces of joints. This localized alloy slightly improved the fatigue life of joints; however, its effects on fatigue life were not as influential as STA heat-treated or in situ rolled joints. The microstructure of weld joints was highly affected through post-processing and treatments, resulting in a substantial influence on the fatigue response of FSW aluminum joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers in Friction Stir Welding and Processing)

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17 pages, 48594 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Present State of Surface Conditioning in Cutting and Grinding

by Benedict Stampfer, Germán González, Michael Gerstenmeyer and Volker Schulze

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030092 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3080

Abstract

All manufacturing processes have an impact on the surface layer state of a component, which in turn significantly determines the properties of parts in service. Although these effects should certainly be exploited, knowledge on the conditioning of the surfaces during the final cutting [...] Read more.

All manufacturing processes have an impact on the surface layer state of a component, which in turn significantly determines the properties of parts in service. Although these effects should certainly be exploited, knowledge on the conditioning of the surfaces during the final cutting and abrasive process of metal components is still only extremely limited today. The key challenges in regard comprise the process-oriented acquisition of suitable measurement signals and their use in robust process control with regard to the surface layer conditions. By mastering these challenges, the present demands for sustainability in production on the one hand and the material requirements in terms of lightweight construction strength on the other hand can be successfully met. In this review article completely new surface conditioning approaches are presented, which originate from the Priority Program 2086 of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Integrity in Machining and Post-processing)

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15 pages, 1453 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Bioprinting of Organ-on-Chip Systems: A Literature Review from a Manufacturing Perspective

by Ketan Thakare, Laura Jerpseth, Zhijian Pei, Alaa Elwany, Francis Quek and Hongmin Qin

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030091 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4659

Abstract

This review discusses the reported studies investigating the use of bioprinting to develop functional organ-on-chip systems from a manufacturing perspective. These organ-on-chip systems model the liver, kidney, heart, lung, gut, bone, vessel, and tumors to demonstrate the viability of bioprinted organ-on-chip systems for [...] Read more.

This review discusses the reported studies investigating the use of bioprinting to develop functional organ-on-chip systems from a manufacturing perspective. These organ-on-chip systems model the liver, kidney, heart, lung, gut, bone, vessel, and tumors to demonstrate the viability of bioprinted organ-on-chip systems for disease modeling and drug screening. In addition, the paper highlights the challenges involved in using bioprinting techniques for organ-on-chip system fabrications and suggests future research directions. Based on the reviewed studies, it is concluded that bioprinting can be applied for the automated and assembly-free fabrication of organ-on chip systems. These bioprinted organ-on-chip systems can help in the modeling of several different diseases and can thereby expedite drug discovery by providing an efficient platform for drug screening in the preclinical phase of drug development processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anniversary Review and Feature Papers)

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16 pages, 6385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anticipatory Online Compensation of Tool Deflection Using a Priori Information from Process Planning

by Berend Denkena, Benjamin Bergmann and Tim Schumacher

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030090 - 17 Aug 2021

Viewed by 2422

Abstract

Removing excess material from build-up welding by milling is a critical step in the repair of blades from aircraft engines. This so-called recontouring is a very challenging machining task. Shape deviations often result from the deflection of tool and workpiece due to process [...] Read more.

Removing excess material from build-up welding by milling is a critical step in the repair of blades from aircraft engines. This so-called recontouring is a very challenging machining task. Shape deviations often result from the deflection of tool and workpiece due to process forces. Considering the individuality of repair cases, compensation of those deflections by process force measurement and online tool path adaption is a very suitable method. However, there is one caveat to this reactive approach. Due to causality, a corrective movement, following a force variation, is always delayed by a finite reaction time. At this moment, though, the displacement has already manifested itself as a deviation in the machined surface. To overcome those limitations and to improve compensation beyond the reduction of control delays, this study proposes a novel approach of anticipatory online compensation. Flank-milling experiments with abrupt changes in the tool-workpiece engagement conditions are conducted to investigate the limitations of reactive compensation and to explore the potential of the new anticipatory approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Digital Twin Integration for Smart Machining)

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36 pages, 7743 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Printed Electronics: Fabrication Methods, Inks, Substrates, Applications and Environmental Impacts

by Jenny Wiklund, Alp Karakoç, Toni Palko, Hüseyin Yiğitler, Kalle Ruttik, Riku Jäntti and Jouni Paltakari

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030089 - 13 Aug 2021

Cited by 148 | Viewed by 20005

Abstract

Innovations in industrial automation, information and communication technology (ICT), renewable energy as well as monitoring and sensing fields have been paving the way for smart devices, which can acquire and convey information to the Internet. Since there is an ever-increasing demand for large [...] Read more.

Innovations in industrial automation, information and communication technology (ICT), renewable energy as well as monitoring and sensing fields have been paving the way for smart devices, which can acquire and convey information to the Internet. Since there is an ever-increasing demand for large yet affordable production volumes for such devices, printed electronics has been attracting attention of both industry and academia. In order to understand the potential and future prospects of the printed electronics, the present paper summarizes the basic principles and conventional approaches while providing the recent progresses in the fabrication and material technologies, applications and environmental impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anniversary Review and Feature Papers)

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21 pages, 16412 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Parameter for Butt Joint in Friction Stir Welding of Semi-Solid Aluminum Alloy 5083 Using Taguchi Technique

by Konkrai Nakowong and Kittima Sillapasa

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030088 - 13 Aug 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2899

Abstract

The semi-solid metal (SSM) 5083 aluminum alloy was developed for part manufacturing in the marine shipbuilding industry. This study aimed to optimize the parameters for the friction stir welding process of SSM 5083 aluminum alloy using the Taguchi and analysis of variance (ANOVA) [...] Read more.

The semi-solid metal (SSM) 5083 aluminum alloy was developed for part manufacturing in the marine shipbuilding industry. This study aimed to optimize the parameters for the friction stir welding process of SSM 5083 aluminum alloy using the Taguchi and analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques. Our analyses included tensile strength, hardness value, and the microstructure. The results revealed that the optimal parameters obtained for the tensile strength and hardness value in the stir zone (SZ) were A₁B₁C₂ (1000 rpm, 10 mm/min, with a threaded cylindrical tool) with a tensile strength of 235.22 MPa and A₂B₁C₂ (1200 rpm, 10 mm/min, with a threaded cylindrical tool) with a hardness value of 80.64 HV. According to the results obtained by ANOVA, it was found that the welding speed was the most significant process parameter in terms of influencing the tensile strength. Contrarily, no parameter influenced the hardness at a 95% confidence level. The examination using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscope (EDS) revealed an elongated grain structure and a void defect at the pin tip on the advancing side (AS) in the SZ. The particle distribution was uniform with Al₂O₃ and small porous SiO₂ phases. Moreover, the quantities of C, O, Al, F, and Mg decreased. Full article

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16 pages, 2515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ambient-Temperature Indentation Creep of Shape Memory NiTi Alloys: Additively Manufactured versus Cast

by Md. Minhazul Islam, Parisa Bayati, Mohammadreza Nematollahi, Ahmadreza Jahadakbar, Mohammad Elahinia and Meysam Haghshenas

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030087 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2328

Abstract

In this study, depth-sensing indentation creep response of cast and additively manufactured (laser powder bed fusion) NiTi alloys in heat-treated conditions have been investigated at ambient temperature. Indentation creep tests were evaluated with the help of a dual-stage approach comprising a loading segment [...] Read more.

In this study, depth-sensing indentation creep response of cast and additively manufactured (laser powder bed fusion) NiTi alloys in heat-treated conditions have been investigated at ambient temperature. Indentation creep tests were evaluated with the help of a dual-stage approach comprising a loading segment with a subsequent constant load-holding stage and an unloading phase afterward. The investigation was carried out at a maximum load of 50 mN along with a holding time of 600 s. Different creep parameters comprising indentation creep displacement, creep strain rate, creep stress exponent as well as the indentation size effect have been analyzed quantitatively for the employed materials. In addition, microstructural analysis has been performed to ascertain the processing–microstructure–creep property correlations. A substantial indentation size effect was seen for both cast and printed NiTi samples in heat-treated conditions. According to the creep stress exponent measurements, the dominant mechanism of rate-dependent plastic deformation for all NiTi samples at ambient temperature is attributed to the dislocation movement (i.e., glide/climb). The outcome of this investigation will act as a framework to understand the underlying mechanisms of ambient-temperature indentation creep of the cast and printed NiTi alloy in conjunction with heat-treated conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Failure, Fracture and Fatigue in Additive Manufacturing (F³AM))

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24 pages, 1507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling of Powder Removal for Additive Manufacture Postprocessing

by Andrew Roberts, Recep Kahraman, Desi Bacheva and Gavin Tabor

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030086 - 06 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2404

Abstract

A critical challenge underpinning the adoption of Additive Manufacture (AM) as a technology is the postprocessing of manufactured components. For Powder Bed Fusion (PBF), this can involve the removal of powder from the interior of the component, often by vibrating the component to [...] Read more.

A critical challenge underpinning the adoption of Additive Manufacture (AM) as a technology is the postprocessing of manufactured components. For Powder Bed Fusion (PBF), this can involve the removal of powder from the interior of the component, often by vibrating the component to fluidise the powder to encourage drainage. In this paper, we develop and validate a computational model of the flow of metal powder suitable for predicting powder removal from such AM components. The model is a continuum Eulerian multiphase model of the powder including models for the granular temperature; the effect of vibration can be included through appropriate wall boundaries for this granular temperature. We validate the individual sub-models appropriate for AM metal powders by comparison with in-house and literature experimental results, and then apply the full model to a more complex geometry typical of an AM Heat Exchanger. The model is shown to provide valuable and accurate results at a fraction of the computational cost of a particle-based model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing and Its Post Processing Techniques)

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18 pages, 3892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Line Height Measurement Technique for Directed Energy Deposition Processes

by Herman Borovkov, Aitor Garcia de la Yedra, Xabier Zurutuza, Xabier Angulo, Pedro Alvarez, Juan Carlos Pereira and Fernando Cortes

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030085 - 05 Aug 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3337

Abstract

Directed energy deposition (DED) is a family of additive manufacturing technologies. With these processes, metal parts are built layer by layer, introducing dynamics that propagate in time and layer-domains, which implies additional complexity and consequently, the resulting part quality is hard to predict. [...] Read more.

Directed energy deposition (DED) is a family of additive manufacturing technologies. With these processes, metal parts are built layer by layer, introducing dynamics that propagate in time and layer-domains, which implies additional complexity and consequently, the resulting part quality is hard to predict. Control of the deposit layer thickness and height is a critical issue since it impacts on geometrical accuracy, process stability, and the overall quality of the product. Therefore, online feedback height control for DED processes with proper sensor strategies is required. This work presents a novel vision-based triangulation technique through an off-axis located CCD camera synchronized with a 640 nm wavelength pulsed illumination laser. Image processing and machine vision techniques allow in-line height measurement right after metal solidification. The linearity and the precision of the proposed setup are validated through off-and in-process trials in the laser metal deposition (LMD) process. Besides, the performance of the developed in-line inspection system has also been tested for the Arc based DED process and compared against experimental weld bead characterization data. In this last case, the system additionally allowed for the measurement of weld bead width and contact angles, which are critical in first runs of multilayer buildups. Full article

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19 pages, 47539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical-Experimental Plastic-Damage Characterisation of Additively Manufactured 18Ni300 Maraging Steel by Means of Multiaxial Double-Notched Specimens

by Tiago Silva, Afonso Gregório, Filipe Silva, José Xavier, Ana Reis, Pedro Rosa and Abílio de Jesus

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030084 - 02 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2335

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) has become a viable option for producing structural parts with a high degree of geometrical complexity. Despite such trend, accurate material properties, under diversified testing conditions, are scarce or practically non-existent for the most recent additively manufactured (AMed) materials. Such [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) has become a viable option for producing structural parts with a high degree of geometrical complexity. Despite such trend, accurate material properties, under diversified testing conditions, are scarce or practically non-existent for the most recent additively manufactured (AMed) materials. Such data gap may compromise component performance design, through numerical simulation, especially enhanced by topological optimisation of AMed components. This study aimed at a comprehensive characterisation of laser powder bed fusion as-built 18Ni300 maraging steel and its systematic comparison to the conventional counterpart. Multiaxial double-notched specimens demonstrated a successful depiction of both plastic and damage behaviour under different stress states. Tensile specimens with distinct notch configurations were also used for high stress triaxiality range characterisation. This study demonstrates that the multiaxial double-notched specimens constitute a viable option towards the inverse plastic behaviour calibration of high-strength additively manufactured steels in distinct state of stress conditions. AMed maraging steel exhibited higher strength and lower ductility than the conventional material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Direct Digital Manufacturing with Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing)

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35 pages, 14932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Efficient Methodology towards Mechanical Characterization and Modelling of 18Ni300 AMed Steel in Extreme Loading and Temperature Conditions for Metal Cutting Applications

by Tiago E. F. Silva, Afonso V. L. Gregório, Abílio M. P. de Jesus and Pedro A. R. Rosa

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030083 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2691

Abstract

A thorough control of the machining operations is essential to ensure the successful post-processing of additively manufactured components, which can be assessed through machinability tests endowed with numerical simulation of the metal cutting process. However, to accurately depict the complex metal cutting mechanism, [...] Read more.

A thorough control of the machining operations is essential to ensure the successful post-processing of additively manufactured components, which can be assessed through machinability tests endowed with numerical simulation of the metal cutting process. However, to accurately depict the complex metal cutting mechanism, it is not only necessary to develop robust numerical models but also to properly characterize the material behavior, which can be a long-winded process, especially for state-of-stress sensitive materials. In this paper, an efficient mechanical characterization methodology has been developed through the usage of both direct and inverse calibration procedures. Apart from the typical axisymmetric specimens (such as those used in compression and tensile tests), plane strain specimens have been applied in the constitutive law calibration accounting for plastic and damage behaviors. Orthogonal cutting experiments allowed the validation of the implemented numerical model for simulation of the metal cutting processes. Moreover, the numerical simulation of an industrial machining operation (longitudinal cylindrical turning) revealed a very reasonably prediction of cutting forces and chip morphology, which is crucial for the identification of favorable cutting scenarios for difficult-to-cut materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impulse-Based Manufacturing Technologies)

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21 pages, 31734 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Rotary Print Head to Effect Residual Stresses and Interlayer Bonding in an FLM-Process

by Philipp Bengfort, Dennis Stracke and Bernd Künne

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030082 - 27 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2453

Abstract

In fused layer modeling (FLM) manufacturing technology, there is an increased demand for semi-crystalline materials due to their favorable mechanical properties, such as high strength and toughness. The reasons for their limited use are process-related residual stresses and reduced interlayer bonding, resulting in [...] Read more.

In fused layer modeling (FLM) manufacturing technology, there is an increased demand for semi-crystalline materials due to their favorable mechanical properties, such as high strength and toughness. The reasons for their limited use are process-related residual stresses and reduced interlayer bonding, resulting in component distortion, warping and poor strength. Addressing these problems, this paper presents the development and implementation of a rotary print head that enables local laser pre-deposition heating and forced air cooling in the 2.5-dimensional FLM process. Samples of polypropylene are fabricated to investigate the effects of the modified process on residual stresses and interlayer bonding. The investigations show that local laser pre-deposition heating can positively influence the interlayer bonding. In combination with a reduction of the extrusion temperature and additional cooling, it is possible to considerably reduce the residual stresses. The results of this research show that pre-deposition heating and forced air cooling significantly improve the processability of semi-crystalline thermoplastics in the FLM process. Full article

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20 pages, 8343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Abrasive Coatings: Abraded Volume Measurements in Ceramic Ball Production

by Irene Pessolano Filos, Raffaella Sesana, Massimiliano Di Biase and Rocco Lupoi

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030081 - 27 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2320

Abstract

Technological progress in hybrid bearings developed high wear and abrasion resistant materials for rolling elements. The manufacturing process of bearing balls presents new challenges, as nowadays, it requires time-consuming and costly processes. In this frame, the bearing manufacturing industry is demanding improvements in [...] Read more.

Technological progress in hybrid bearings developed high wear and abrasion resistant materials for rolling elements. The manufacturing process of bearing balls presents new challenges, as nowadays, it requires time-consuming and costly processes. In this frame, the bearing manufacturing industry is demanding improvements in materials, geometry, and processes. This work aims to investigate new abrasive coatings for grinding wheels for Si₃N₄ ball manufacturing. Tribological pin on disk tests are performed on samples of grinding materials (disk) versus a Si₃N₄ ball (pin). Two samples of specimens coated with an electrodeposited diamond and diamond-reinforced metal matrix composite are examined to measure the abrasion rate and the wear resistance of Silicon Nitride Si₃N₄ balls, considering the influence of sliding speed and the effect of coating deposition on diamond particle density and granulometry. The measurements estimated the specific wear coefficient k, the height wear surface h, and the wear rate u of the Si₃N₄ balls. The results pointed out that by increasing the sliding speed, the abraded volume increases for both the coatings. The parameters affecting the abrasion effectiveness of both the coatings are the surface roughness, the abrasive particle dimension, and the sliding speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Surface Finishing Processes)

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18 pages, 6385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Twins for High-Tech Machining Applications—A Model-Based Analytics-Ready Approach

by Albrecht Hänel, André Seidel, Uwe Frieß, Uwe Teicher, Hajo Wiemer, Dongqian Wang, Eric Wenkler, Lars Penter, Arvid Hellmich and Steffen Ihlenfeldt

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030080 - 27 Jul 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5947

Abstract

This paper presents a brief introduction to competition-driven digital transformation in the machining sector. On this basis, the creation of a digital twin for machining processes is approached firstly using a basic digital twin structure. The latter is sub-grouped into information and data [...] Read more.

This paper presents a brief introduction to competition-driven digital transformation in the machining sector. On this basis, the creation of a digital twin for machining processes is approached firstly using a basic digital twin structure. The latter is sub-grouped into information and data models, specific calculation and process models, all seen from an application-oriented perspective. Moreover, digital shadow and digital twin are embedded in this framework, being discussed in the context of a state-of-the-art literature review. The main part of this paper addresses models for machine and path inaccuracies, material removal and tool engagement, cutting force, process stability, thermal behavior, workpiece and surface properties. Furthermore, these models are superimposed towards an integral digital twin. In addition, the overall context is expanded towards an integral software architecture of a digital twin providing information system. The information system, in turn, ties in with existing forward-oriented planning from operational practice, leading to a significant expansion of the initially presented basic structure for a digital twin. Consequently, a time-stratified data layer platform is introduced to prepare for the resulting shadow-twin transformation loop. Finally, subtasks are defined to assure functional interfaces, model integrability and feedback measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Digital Twin Integration for Smart Machining)

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2 pages, 172 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Palanisamy et al. Shielded Active Gas Forge Welding of an L80 Steel in a Small Scale Shielded Active Gas Forge Welding Machine. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 16

by Vinothkumar Palanisamy, Jan Ketil Solberg and Per Thomas Moe

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030079 - 27 Jul 2021

Viewed by 1576

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Forming and Joining)

14 pages, 2503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Laser Engraving of Acrylic Plastics from the Perspective of Energy Consumption, CO₂ Emission and Removal Rate

by Mohammad Muhshin Aziz Khan, Shanta Saha, Luca Romoli and Mehedi Hasan Kibria

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030078 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3763

Abstract

This paper focuses on optimizing the laser engraving of acrylic plastics to reduce energy consumption and CO₂ gas emissions, without hindering the production and material removal rates. In this context, the role of laser engraving parameters on energy consumption, CO₂ gas [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on optimizing the laser engraving of acrylic plastics to reduce energy consumption and CO₂ gas emissions, without hindering the production and material removal rates. In this context, the role of laser engraving parameters on energy consumption, CO₂ gas emissions, production rate, and material removal rate was first experimentally investigated. Grey–Taguchi approach was then used to identify an optimal set of process parameters meeting the goal. The scan gap was the most significant factor affecting energy consumption, CO₂ gas emissions, and production rate, whereas, compared to other factors, its impact on material removal rate (MRR) was relatively lower. Moreover, the defocal length had a negligible impact on the response variables taken into consideration. With this laser-process-material combination, to achieve the desired goal, the laser must be focused on the surface, and laser power, scanning speed, and scan gap must be set at 44 W, 300 mm/s, and 0.065 mm, respectively. Full article

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16 pages, 7236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of End Mill Manufacturing on Cutting Edge Quality and Wear Behavior

by Berend Denkena, Alexander Krödel-Worbes, Sascha Beblein and Markus Hein

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030077 - 12 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3321

Abstract

One of the decisive factors for the performance of milling tools is the quality of the cutting edge. The latter results from the process control of the individual steps along the tool manufacturing process chain, which generally includes the sintering or pressing of [...] Read more.

One of the decisive factors for the performance of milling tools is the quality of the cutting edge. The latter results from the process control of the individual steps along the tool manufacturing process chain, which generally includes the sintering or pressing of the blanks, grinding, cutting edge preparation, and coating of the tools. However, the targeted and application-specific design of the process steps in terms of high economic efficiency is currently limited by a lack of knowledge regarding the influence of the corresponding process parameters on the resulting cutting edge quality. In addition, there is a lack of suitable parameters that adequately represent the characteristics of the cutting edge microtopography. This publication therefore investigates the influence of manufacturing processes on cutting edge quality and wear behavior of end mills. On this basis, different characterization parameters for the cutting edge quality are derived and evaluated with regard to their ability to predict the wear behavior. Full article

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18 pages, 7044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling and Simulation of Mechanical Loads and Residual Stresses in Deep Rolling at Elevated Temperature

by Sven Kuschel, Tobias Kinner-Becker, Robert Zmich, Jens Sölter and Daniel Meyer

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030076 - 10 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2258

Abstract

Based on the concept of Process Signatures, the deep rolling process is analyzed, aiming at functional relationships between material modifications and internal material loads during the process. The focus of this work is to investigate the influence of the workpiece temperature on the [...] Read more.

Based on the concept of Process Signatures, the deep rolling process is analyzed, aiming at functional relationships between material modifications and internal material loads during the process. The focus of this work is to investigate the influence of the workpiece temperature on the generated residual stress components. For this purpose, extensive finite element simulations of deep rolling were conducted, taking into account the effect of neighboring tool paths on the internal material loads and residual stress. A kinematic strain hardening model was parameterized and utilized and the simulations were validated experimentally. Simulated residual stresses agree qualitatively well with measurements and show a strong influence of the workpiece temperature as expected. Process Signature Components were generated, taking into account the maximal and minimal residual stress as well as their respective positions beneath the workpiece surface. Full article

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14 pages, 4581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Lubrication and Cooling on the Quality of Single-Point Incremental Forming Parts of Polycarbonate Sheets

by Irina Beșliu-Băncescu, Laurențiu Slătineanu, Oana Dodun and Gheorghe Nagîț

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030075 - 08 Jul 2021

Viewed by 1802

Abstract

Without ensuring high productivity, single-point incremental forming allows obtaining cavities in sheet-type workpieces by rotating and moving a rotary forming tool along a predetermined path. The process can be used in the case of both metal and plastic sheets. The heat generated in [...] Read more.

Without ensuring high productivity, single-point incremental forming allows obtaining cavities in sheet-type workpieces by rotating and moving a rotary forming tool along a predetermined path. The process can be used in the case of both metal and plastic sheets. The heat generated in the processing area is expected to cause different elongations and contractions, affecting the final dimensional accuracy of the surfaces obtained. A full factorial experiment with three independent variables at two levels was used to investigate the correlations between the values of some of the process input factors and the results of thermal processes developed at the contact between the rotating tool and the workpiece. Experimental research was performed in dry single-point incremental forming, using lubricants and, respectively, with the generation of a decrease in temperature by the use of coolants. Empirical mathematical models were determined, and they confirmed the influence of the values of considered input factors on the thermal processes developed at the contact between the tool and the workpiece material. Temperatures of up to 147 °C were recorded in the processing area of the plastic workpiece. Full article

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12 pages, 2255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Process Parameters on Surface Roughness and Dimensional Accuracy during CO₂ Laser Cutting of PMMA Thin Sheets

by Konstantinos Ninikas, John Kechagias and Konstantinos Salonitis

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030074 - 07 Jul 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3999

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of the laser speed and power, and the position and orientation of the samples, on the average surface roughness (Ra) and dimensional accuracy (DA) during CO₂ laser cutting of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) thin sheets. A mixed five-parameter [...] Read more.

This study investigated the impact of the laser speed and power, and the position and orientation of the samples, on the average surface roughness (Ra) and dimensional accuracy (DA) during CO₂ laser cutting of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) thin sheets. A mixed five-parameter fractional factorial design was applied, and thirty-six measurements for the Ra and DA were obtained. The experimental results were analysed using ANOM diagrams, ANOVA analysis and interaction plots of all parameters. It was concluded that the laser speed is the critical parameter for both surface roughness and dimensional accuracy, resulting in strong interactions with laser power and positioning parameters. It was also shown that Ra values are affected by the orientation of the specimen and can be minimized when the samples are aligned in the laser travel direction. Finally, it was proved that lower laser speed improves the average roughness but reduces the dimensional accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Micro and Nanomanufacturing)

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20 pages, 6606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Hardness and Residual Stress Changes of AISI 4140 Steel Due to Thermal Load during Surface Grinding

by Ewald Kohls, Carsten Heinzel and Marco Eich

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030073 - 05 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2879

Abstract

During surface grinding, internal material loads are generated, which take effect on the surface and subsurface zone of AISI 4140 steel. High thermal loads can result in specific material modifications, e.g., hardness reduction and tensile residual stresses, due to inappropriate combinations of system [...] Read more.

During surface grinding, internal material loads are generated, which take effect on the surface and subsurface zone of AISI 4140 steel. High thermal loads can result in specific material modifications, e.g., hardness reduction and tensile residual stresses, due to inappropriate combinations of system and process parameters which influence the functional performance of the ground component in a negative way. In order to avoid this damaging impact due to the thermal effect, an in-depth understanding of the thermal loads and the resulting modifications is required. This relationship is described in the concept of Process Signatures applied in this paper. Experimentally determined temperature-time histories at various depths below the surface were used to estimate the thermal loads at the surface and subsurface using a numerical approach based on the finite element method (FEM). The results show that the hardness change during surface grinding correlates with the maximum temperature rate at given maximum temperatures. In addition, correlations between the hardness change and the Hollomon–Jaffe parameter are identified, taking into account both the absolute temperature and its evolution over time. Furthermore, it was shown that the surface residual stresses correlate with the maximum local temperature gradients at the surface if no detectable tempering of the microstructure takes place. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Integrity in Machining and Post-processing)

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18 pages, 6778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Addition of Nitrogen through Shielding Gas on TIG Welds Made Homogenously and Heterogeneously on 300 Series Austenitic Stainless Steels

by Rohit Kshirsagar, Steve Jones, Jonathan Lawrence and Jamil Kanfoud

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030072 - 02 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2383

Abstract

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding of austenitic stainless steels is a critical process used in industries. Several properties of the welds must be controlled depending on the application. These properties, which include the geometrical, mechanical and microstructural features, can be modified through an [...] Read more.

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding of austenitic stainless steels is a critical process used in industries. Several properties of the welds must be controlled depending on the application. These properties, which include the geometrical, mechanical and microstructural features, can be modified through an appropriate composition of shielding gas. Researchers have studied the effects of the addition of nitrogen through the shielding gas; however, due to limited amount of experimental data, many of the interaction effects are not yet reported. In this study, welds were made homogeneously as well as heterogeneously with various concentrations of nitrogen added through the shielding gas. The gas compositions used were 99.99%Ar (pure), 2.5% N₂ + Ar, 5% N₂ + Ar and 10% N₂ + Ar. Additionally, the welding process parameters were varied to understand different interaction effects between the shielding gas chemistry and the process variables such as filler wire feed rate, welding current, etc. Strong interactions were observed in the case of heterogeneous welds between the gas composition and the filler wire feed rate, with the penetration depth increasing by nearly 30% with the addition of 10% nitrogen in the shielding gas. The interactions were found to influence the bead geometry, which, in turn, had an effect on the mechanical properties as well as the fatigue life of the welds. A nearly 15% increase in the tensile strength of the samples was observed when using 10% nitrogen in the shielding gas, which also translated to a similar increase in the fatigue life. Full article

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J. Manuf. Mater. Process., Volume 5, Issue 3 (September 2021) – 37 articles

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