The Fungal, Nutritional, and Metabolomic Diagnostics of the Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis Affected by Bud Rot Disease in Esmeraldas, Ecuador
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Foliar Sample Collection
2.3. Soil Sample Collection
2.4. DRIS Analysis
2.5. Metagenomic Analysis
2.5.1. DNA Extraction
2.5.2. MiSeq Illumina Sequencing
2.6. Bioinformatics and Data Analysis
2.7. LC-MS
2.7.1. Extraction Process
2.7.2. LC-MS Analysis
3. Results
3.1. DRIS Analysis Based on the Soil and Foliar Determinations
3.2. Metagenomic Analysis
3.3. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) Analysis
4. Discussion
4.1. The Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System—DRIS
4.2. Metagenomic Analysis
4.3. LC-MS Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Potential Response to the Application of Nutrients (RPAN) | Inferior Limit (α) | Superior Limit |
---|---|---|
Cryodeficiency | −∞ | − |
Prone to Deficiency | − | − |
Nutritional Balance | − | |
Prone to Excess or Toxicity | ||
Excess or Toxicity | ∞ |
Primer Sequence for ITS1 Region | |
---|---|
Forward | ITS_fwd_1 CTTGGTCATTTAGAGGAAGTAA |
ITS_fwd_2 CTCGGTCATTTAGAGGAAGTAA | |
ITS_fwd_3 CTTGGTCATTTAGAGGAACTAA | |
ITS_fwd_4 CCCGGTCATTTAGAGGAAGTAA | |
ITS_fwd_5 CTAGGCTATTTAGAGGAAGTAA | |
Reverse | ITS_rev_1 GCTGCGTTCTTCATCGATGC |
ITS_rev_2 GCTGCGTTCTTCATCGATGG | |
ITS_rev_3 GCTACGTTCTTCATCGATGC | |
ITS_rev_4 GCTGCGTTCTTCATCGATGT | |
ITS_rev_5 ACTGTGTTCTTCATCGATGT |
Overhang Adapter Sequences | |
---|---|
Forward | TCGTCGGCAGCGTCAGATGTGTATAAGAGACAG-CTTGGTCATTTAGAGGAAGTAA |
Reverse | GTCTCGTGGGCTCGGAGATGTGTATAAGAGACAG-GCTGCGTTCTTCATCGATGC |
DRIS Index/IBN | Bud Rot Disease Infection Stages in Oil Palm | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Healthy Plants | Stage I | Stage II | Stage III | |||||
Indices | RPANs | Indices | RPANs | Indices | RPANs | Indices | RPANs | |
IN | −396.74 | −0.0 | −411.27 | −0.02 | −517.24 | −0.03 | −500.30 | −0.06 |
IP | −622.36 | −0.44 | −468.81 | −0.15 | −513.36 | −0.02 | −567.44 | −0.18 |
IK | 347.43 | 0.14 | 571.37 | 0.35 | 1012.20 | 0.70 | 774.99 | 0.50 |
Ica | −266.58 | −0.41 | −274.21 | −0.39 | −360.95 | −0.33 | −246.98 | −0.65 |
IMg | −343.01 | −0.15 | −327.64 | −0.21 | −345.97 | −0.37 | −411.53 | −0.14 |
IS | −414.41 | −0.04 | −350.33 | −0.14 | −391.10 | −0.25 | −430.52 | −0.09 |
IB | 175.26 | 0.82 | 204.91 | 0.68 | 271.70 | 0.61 | 295.41 | 0.47 |
ICu | 451.92 | 0.12 | 367.41 | 0.09 | 349.42 | 0.36 | 432.07 | 0.09 |
IZn | 513.27 | 0.25 | 442.28 | −0.26 | 496.37 | 0.01 | 380.87 | 0.22 |
IMn | −365.38 | −0.09 | −524.50 | 0.65 | −872.40 | −0.56 | −622.09 | −0.28 |
Ife | 865.11 | 0.77 | 773.28 | 921.22 | 0.61 | 897.74 | 0.64 | |
IBN | 432.86 | 428.73 | 550.18 | 505.45 | ||||
SD | 490.50 | 476.06 | 633.27 | 565.73 |
Category | Abundance % | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
A Infected Soil | B Healthy Soil | C Infected Plant | D Healthy Plant | |
Unclassified at the species level | 25.8 | 30.89 | 31.03 | 19.78 |
Ascochyta rabiei (A) | 20.79 | 9.3 | ||
Talaromyces ruber (A) | 9.76 | 7.71 | ||
Cryptococcus neoformans (B) | 6.58 | 5.5 | ||
Antrodia sp. (B) | 3.43 | 3.25 | ||
Saccharomyces sp. (A) | 3.37 | 7.9 | ||
Candida sake (A) | 3.06 | |||
Pyrenochaetopsis leptospora (A) | 1.98 | |||
Wallemia sebi (B) | 2.37 | |||
Acanthocorticium brueggemannii (B) | 1.99 | |||
unidentified Hypocreales fam Incertae sedis sp. | 22.91 | 5.47 | ||
Colletotrichum clidemiae (A) | 17.41 | |||
Plectosphaerella cucumerina (A) | 12.93 | 2.33 | ||
Acremonium stromaticum (A) | 5.49 | |||
Fusarium solani (A) | 2.1 | 11.54 | ||
Fusarium neocosmosporiellum (A) | 1.99 | 1043 | ||
Plectosphaerella oratosquillae (A) | 0.8 | |||
Cryptococcus nanyangensis (B) | 7.57 | |||
Xenoacremonium recifei (A) | 4.21 | |||
Fusarium ramigenum (A) | 3.88 | |||
Wallemiales (B) | 0.74 | |||
Myrmecridiales (A) | 0.4 | |||
Magnaporthales (A) | 0.28 | |||
Capnodiales (A) | 2.53 |
Identified Compound | Molecular Formula | Ion Adduct | Molecular Weight (g/mol) | LC-MS | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[M-H]− | rt | Fr | ||||
Shikimic acid | C7H10O5 | M − H | 174.15 | 173.045 | 1.191 | |
Epicatechin | C15H14O6 | M − H | 290.07904 | 289.072 | 1.609 | |
(10E,15E)-9,12,13-trihydroxyoctadeca-10,15-dienoic acid | C18H32O5 | M − H | 328.4 | 327.218 | 21.467 | 3 |
[(4E)-7-acetyloxy-6-hydroxy-2-methyl-10-oxo-2,3,6,7,8,9-hexahydrooxecin-3-yl] (E)-but-2-enoate | C16H22O7 | M + H | 326.34 | 325.129 | 31.257 | |
[5-acetyloxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-2-oxo-6-propan-2-ylcyclohex-3-en-1-yl] 3-methyl pentanoate | C18H28O6 | M + H | 340.4 | 339.181 | 32.56 | |
1-[2-methyl-6-[(2S,3R,4S,5S,6R)-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxyphenyl]ethanone | C14H18O7 | M + H | 298.29 | 311.114 | 32.046 | 21, 2, 12, 17, 5, 2 |
8-hydroxy-2,7,7,11,15-pentamethyl-5,12,16-trioxapentacyclo[9.8.0.0(2),.0,.0(1)(3),(1)]nonadec-13(18)-ene-3,17-dione | C21H28O6 | M − H | 376.4 | 377.102 | 1.14 | |
alpha, alpha-Trehalose | C12H22O11 | M − H | 342.297 | 387.115 | 1.14 | 15 |
Carnosine | C9H14N4O3 | M + H | 226.23 | 225.099 | 41.607 | 2, 3 |
Cystine | C6H12N2O4S2 | M + H | 240.3 | 239.017 | 41.913 | 9, 1 |
DOCOSANOL | C22H46O | M + H | 326.6 | 325.348 | 34.004 | |
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid | C10H16N2O8 | M − H | 292.24 | 291.084 | 31.676 | 3 |
IS_N-BENZOYL-D5-GLYCINE | C9H9NO3 | M − H | 184.2 | 183.082 | 1.191 | 4 |
Canrenone | C22H28O3 | M − H | 340.2038 | 339.197 | 28.852 | 7, 3 |
Isoorientin | C21H20O11 | M − H | 448.38 | 447.093 | 13.429 | 3, 3 |
Massbank:IA000081 9-HODE | C18H32O3 | M − H1 | 296.235 | 295.228 | 32.232 | 7 |
Massbank:IA000367 9-HOTrE | C18H30O3 | M − H1 | 294.219 | 293.212 | 30.656 | 3 |
Citric acid | C6H8O7 | M + H | 192.12 | 191.02 | 1.191 | 2 |
n-Capric acid | C10H20O2 | M − H | 172.146 | 171 | 1.123 | |
Furosemide | C12H11ClN2O5S | M − H | 330.0077 | 329 | 30.21 | 2 |
2-Hydroxyhippuric acid|2-hydroxyhippurate | C9H9NO4 | M − H | 195.05316 | 194.1 | 28.272 | |
Kaempferol-7-O-neohesperidoside | C27H30O15 | M − H | 594.15847 | 593.151 | 1.566 | 2 |
Naringenin-7-O-glucoside | C21H22O10 | M − H | 434.397 | 433.114 | 32.002 | |
Isovitexin | C21H20O10 | M − H | 432.381 | 431.098 | 1.744 | 1 |
Caffeyl alcohol | C9H10O3 | M − H | 166.176 | 165.056 | 1.158 | |
Massbank:PR309095 FA 18:2 + 2O | C18H32O4 | M − H | 312.45 | 311.222 | 29.94 | |
Massbank:PR309165 MGMG 18:3 | C27H46O9 | M + HCOO | 514.656 | 559.312 | 31.229 | 3 |
Massbank:PR309165 MGMG 18:3 | C27H46O9 | M + HCOO | 514.656 | 559.312 | 31.658 | 1 |
Massbank:PR309171 DGMG 18:3 | C33H56O14 | M + HCOO | 676.8 | 721.363 | 29.236 | 3, 6 |
Coumaroyl + C6H9O8 (isomer of 844, 845, 846) | C15H16O10 | M − H | 356.28 | 355.065 | 1.557 | 8 |
Massbank:UT000256 9-HPODE | C18H32O4 | M − H | 312.23006 | 311.223 | 29.191 | 5 |
Massbank:UT000264 9-HpOTrE | C18H30O4 | M − H | 310.21441 | 309.207 | 28.062 | 1 |
Dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid | C18H30O3S | M-H | 326.19157 | 325.184 | 29.94 | 8 |
Rutin | C27H30O16 | M − H | 610.15338 | 609.146 | 1.557 | |
Sesamin | C20H18O6 | M + H | 354.4 | 353.103 | 33.906 | 14 |
Sucrose | C12H22O11 | M − H | 342.3 | 341.109 | 1.14 | |
Thymol-beta-D-glucoside | C16H24O6 | M + H | 312.36 | 311.15 | 34.672 | |
Trihydroxy flavone-C-hexoside-C-pentoside | C27H30O15 | M − H | 594.5 | 563.141 | 1.557 | 2 |
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Mihai, R.A.; Melo Heras, E.J.; Landazuri Abarca, P.A.; Catana, R.D. The Fungal, Nutritional, and Metabolomic Diagnostics of the Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis Affected by Bud Rot Disease in Esmeraldas, Ecuador. J. Fungi 2023, 9, 952. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090952
Mihai RA, Melo Heras EJ, Landazuri Abarca PA, Catana RD. The Fungal, Nutritional, and Metabolomic Diagnostics of the Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis Affected by Bud Rot Disease in Esmeraldas, Ecuador. Journal of Fungi. 2023; 9(9):952. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090952
Chicago/Turabian StyleMihai, Raluca A., Erly J. Melo Heras, Pablo A. Landazuri Abarca, and Rodica D. Catana. 2023. "The Fungal, Nutritional, and Metabolomic Diagnostics of the Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis Affected by Bud Rot Disease in Esmeraldas, Ecuador" Journal of Fungi 9, no. 9: 952. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9090952