Pathogens

8 pages, 441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Genetic Polymorphisms of 24 Base Pair Duplication and Point G102S of Human Chitotriosidase to Bancroftian Filariasis at the Thai–Myanmar Border

by Vivornpun Sanprasert, Sarit Charuchaibovorn and Surang Nuchprayoon

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010041 - 25 Mar 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2958

Abstract

Lymphatic filariasis, caused by lymphatic filarial parasites, Wuchereria bancrofti, and Brugia malayi, causes significant morbidity and disability to 120 million people in the tropics and subtropics. Chitin has an important role for embryogenesis in adult worms and is a component of microfilaria [...] Read more.

Lymphatic filariasis, caused by lymphatic filarial parasites, Wuchereria bancrofti, and Brugia malayi, causes significant morbidity and disability to 120 million people in the tropics and subtropics. Chitin has an important role for embryogenesis in adult worms and is a component of microfilaria sheath. Human chitotriosidase (CHIT1) is a chitin-degrading enzyme which provides a protective role against chitin-containing pathogens. Here, we determined the association of CHIT1 polymorphisms with susceptibility to bancroftian filariasis (BF) in 88 individuals at the Thai–Myanmar border. Two common polymorphisms of CHIT1, contributing inactive CHIT protein, including 24 base pair (24 bp) duplication in exon 10, and p. G102S in exon 4 were genotyped by allele-specific Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and PCR sequencing, respectively. Unexpectedly, genotype frequencies of 24 bp duplication insertion homozygous (INS/INS) were significantly higher in endemic normal (EN) (40.0%) than BF patients (31.4%). In contrast, genotype frequencies of p. G102S homozygous (A/A) in BF patients (21.6%) was higher than in EN (19.0%) without statistical difference. Mutant allele frequencies of 24 bp duplication were 0.6125 (98/160) and p. G102S were 0.392 (69/176). Genotype and allele frequencies of CHIT1, 24 bp duplication, and p. G102S, showed no association with BF patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Immunological Responses and Immune Defense Mechanisms)

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14 pages, 256 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Candida albicans at Host Barrier Sites: Pattern Recognition Receptors and Beyond

by Marc Swidergall

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010040 - 25 Mar 2019

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5217

Abstract

Over the last decades, fungal infections have emerged as a growing threat to human health. Although the human body is at potential risk, various body sites host several commensal fungal species, including Candida albicans. In healthy individuals, C. albicans colonizes different mucosal [...] Read more.

Over the last decades, fungal infections have emerged as a growing threat to human health. Although the human body is at potential risk, various body sites host several commensal fungal species, including Candida albicans. In healthy individuals, C. albicans colonizes different mucosal surfaces without causing harm, while under diverse circumstances the fungus can proliferate and cause disease. In this context, the understanding of host–C. albicans interactions in health and during infection may lead to novel therapeutic approaches. Importantly, host cells express pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which sense conserved fungal structures and orchestrate innate immune responses. Herein, important findings on the topic of the recognition of C. albicans at host barrier sites are discussed. This review briefly summarizes the importance and functions of myeloid PRRs, reviews the fungal recognition and biology of stromal cells, and highlights important C. albicans virulence attributes during site-specific proliferation and invasion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunology of Fungal Infections)

11 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bacterial sialoglycosidases in Virulence and Pathogenesis

by Preethi Sudhakara, Iyappan Sellamuthu and A. Wilson Aruni

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010039 - 24 Mar 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3852

Abstract

Human oral microbiome and dysbiotic infections have been recently evidently identified. One of the major reasons for such dysbiosis is impairment of the immune system. Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the tissues that surround and support the teeth. In the United [...] Read more.

Human oral microbiome and dysbiotic infections have been recently evidently identified. One of the major reasons for such dysbiosis is impairment of the immune system. Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the tissues that surround and support the teeth. In the United States., approximately 65 million people are affected by this condition. Its occurrence is also associated with many important systemic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease. Among the most important etiologies of periodontitis is Porphyromonas gingivalis, a keystone bacterial pathogen. Keystone pathogens can orchestrate inflammatory disease by remodeling a normally benign microbiota causing imbalance between normal and pathogenic microbiota (dysbiosis). The important characteristics of P. gingivalis causing dysbiosis are its virulence factors which cause effective subversion of host defenses to its advantage allowing other pathogens to grow. Some of the mechanisms involved in these processes are still not well-understood. However, various microbial strategies target host sialoglycoproteins for immune dysregulation. In addition, the enzymes that break down sialoglycoproteins and sialoglycans are the “sialoglycoproteases”, resulting in exposed terminal sialic acid. This process could lead to pathogen-toll like receptor (TLR) interactions mediated through sialic acid receptor ligand mechanisms. Assessing the function of P. gingivalis sialoglycoproteases, could pave the way to designing carbohydrate analogues and sialic acid mimetics to serve as drug targets. Full article

15 pages, 2305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple Genotyping Method for Rapid Differentiation of Blastocystis Subtypes and Subtype Distribution of Blastocystis spp. in Thailand

by Nittaya Srichaipon, Surang Nuchprayoon, Sarit Charuchaibovorn, Pattadon Sukkapan and Vivornpun Sanprasert

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010038 - 21 Mar 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3890

Abstract

Blastocystis spp. is one of the most common protozoa of humans and animals worldwide. The genetic diversity of Blastocystis spp. might be associated with a wide range of symptoms. However, the prevalence of each subtype is different in each country. Until now, there [...] Read more.

Blastocystis spp. is one of the most common protozoa of humans and animals worldwide. The genetic diversity of Blastocystis spp. might be associated with a wide range of symptoms. However, the prevalence of each subtype is different in each country. Until now, there is no standard method for subtyping of Blastocystis spp. We developed a sequential restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis for the rapid differentiation of human Blastocystis subtypes. A large-scale study was also conducted to determine the subtype distribution of Blastocystis spp. in Thailand. Stool samples were collected from 1025 school-age students in four regions of Thailand. Blastocystis infections were identified by direct smear, formalin ethyl-acetate concentration technique (FECT), Boeck and Drbohlav’s Locke-Egg-Serum (LES) medium culture, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of small-subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU rDNA). Subtypes of Blastocystis spp. were determined by RFLP. Phylogenetic tree of partial SSU rDNA sequences of Blastocystis spp. was constructed using the Maximum Likelihood (ML) method. Out of 1025 students, 416 (40.6%) were positive for Blastocystis spp. Using two steps of RFLP reactions, we could determine subtype one–three among these students. Subtype 3 was the most common subtype (58.72%) in Thai students, followed by subtype 1 (31.2%), and subtype 2 (10.1%). Blastocystis subtype 3 was the most prevalent in all regions of Thailand. The subtype distribution of Blastocystis spp. in Thailand was different from other countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Waterborne/Foodborne/Airborne Pathogens)

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18 pages, 1078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metagenomic Characterization of Bacterial Communities on Ready-to-Eat Vegetables and Effects of Household Washing on their Diversity and Composition

by Soultana Tatsika, Katerina Karamanoli, Hera Karayanni and Savvas Genitsaris

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010037 - 19 Mar 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5771

Abstract

Ready-to-eat (RTE) leafy salad vegetables are considered foods that can be consumed immediately at the point of sale without further treatment. The aim of the study was to investigate the bacterial community composition of RTE salads at the point of consumption and the [...] Read more.

Ready-to-eat (RTE) leafy salad vegetables are considered foods that can be consumed immediately at the point of sale without further treatment. The aim of the study was to investigate the bacterial community composition of RTE salads at the point of consumption and the changes in bacterial diversity and composition associated with different household washing treatments. The bacterial microbiomes of rocket and spinach leaves were examined by means of 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing. Overall, 886 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) were detected in the salads’ leaves. Proteobacteria was the most diverse high-level taxonomic group followed by Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes. Although they were processed at the same production facilities, rocket showed different bacterial community composition than spinach salads, mainly attributed to the different contributions of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes to the total OTU number. The tested household decontamination treatments proved inefficient in changing the bacterial community composition in both RTE salads. Furthermore, storage duration of the salads at refrigeration temperatures affected the microbiome, by decreasing the bacterial richness and promoting the dominance of psychrotropic bacteria. Finally, both salads were found to be a reservoir of opportunistic human pathogens, while washing methods usually applied at home proved to be inefficient in their removal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waterborne Zoonotic Pathogens)

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12 pages, 2160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Characterization of Hfq Bacterial Amyloid: A Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Study

by David Partouche, Valeria Militello, Andrea Gomez-Zavaglia, Frank Wien, Christophe Sandt and Véronique Arluison

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010036 - 18 Mar 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4017

Abstract

Hfq is a bacterial protein that regulates gene expression at the post-transcriptional level in Gram-negative bacteria. We have previously shown that Escherichia coli Hfq protein, and more precisely its C-terminal region (CTR), self-assembles into an amyloid-like structure in vitro. In the present work, [...] Read more.

Hfq is a bacterial protein that regulates gene expression at the post-transcriptional level in Gram-negative bacteria. We have previously shown that Escherichia coli Hfq protein, and more precisely its C-terminal region (CTR), self-assembles into an amyloid-like structure in vitro. In the present work, we present evidence that Hfq unambiguously forms amyloid structures also in vivo. Taking into account the role of this protein in bacterial adaptation and virulence, our work opens possibilities to target Hfq amyloid self-assembly and cell location, with important potential to block bacterial adaptation and treat infections. Full article

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14 pages, 642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Colonization of HIV-Infected Children with Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

by Eric S. Donkor, Fleischer C. N. Kotey, Nicholas T. K. D. Dayie, Samuel Duodu, Patience B. Tetteh-Quarcoo, Mary-Magdalene Osei and Edem M. A. Tette

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010035 - 17 Mar 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4200

Abstract

Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses a public health threat owing to its extensive resistance to antibiotics, association with persistent outbreaks, and markedly increased healthcare costs. Moreover, HIV-infected individuals are at a greater risk for colonization with MRSA, and may act as reservoirs [...] Read more.

Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) poses a public health threat owing to its extensive resistance to antibiotics, association with persistent outbreaks, and markedly increased healthcare costs. Moreover, HIV-infected individuals are at a greater risk for colonization with MRSA, and may act as reservoirs for subsequent transmission to other individuals. In Ghana, little is known about MRSA in relation to at-risk populations, such as HIV-infected children. The aim of this study was to investigate nasal carriage of S. aureus and MRSA among HIV-infected children in Accra, including the prevalence, risk factors and antibiotic resistance. Methodology: The study was cross-sectional, and involved 107 children with HIV infection and an equal number of sex- and age group- matched apparently healthy controls recruited from the Princess Marie Louis Children’s Hospital in Accra. Nasal swab specimens were collected from the study participants and cultured for bacteria. S. aureus isolates were confirmed by the coagulase test while MRSA was confirmed by PCR of the mecA gene. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of S. aureus isolates was done by the Kirby Bauer method. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on demographic, household and clinical features of the study participants. A logistic regression analysis was performed to identify determinants of S. aureus and MRSA carriage among participants of both study groups. Results: The carriage prevalence of S. aureus and MRSA were 44.9% (48) and 5.6% (6), respectively, among the HIV-infected individuals, and the corresponding values within the control group were 23.4% (25) and 0.9% (1). There was a significant association between HIV infection and S. aureus colonization (p < 0.001), but not MRSA colonization (p = 0.055). The main predictor of S. aureus colonization in both study groups was absence of colonization with coagulase negative staphylococcus (p < 0.001). Furthermore, the main predictor of MRSA colonization was regular hand washing with soap (p = 0.043); this was observed among HIV-infected individuals but not the control group. The proportion of S. aureus isolates that were multidrug resistant was 62.3% (33/53) in the HIV-infected group and 80% (20/25) in the control group (p = 0.192). Conclusions: HIV infection is a risk factor for nasal colonization of S. aureus among children in Accra but may not be for MRSA. Both the HIV-infected and uninfected children are reservoirs of multidrug resistant S. aureus. Demographic, household and clinical features appear to have little or no relationship with S. aureus and MRSA colonization in the study children. Full article

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12 pages, 838 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Intra-Species and Inter-Species Differences in Cytokine Production by Porcine Antigen-Presenting Cells Stimulated by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, M. hyorhinis, and M. flocculare

by Sarah Fourour, Corinne Marois-Créhan, Léa Martelet, Christelle Fablet, Isabelle Kempf, Marcelo Gottschalk and Mariela Segura

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010034 - 16 Mar 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3707

Abstract

Mycoplasma hyorhinis and M. flocculare are commonly co-isolated with M. hyopneumoniae (primary agent of swine enzootic pneumonia) in gross pneumonia-like lesions, but their involvement in the disease process remains unknown. T cells play an immuno-pathological role during mycoplasmal infections. Dendritic cells (DCs) are [...] Read more.

Mycoplasma hyorhinis and M. flocculare are commonly co-isolated with M. hyopneumoniae (primary agent of swine enzootic pneumonia) in gross pneumonia-like lesions, but their involvement in the disease process remains unknown. T cells play an immuno-pathological role during mycoplasmal infections. Dendritic cells (DCs) are major antigen-presenting cells involved in T cell activation and differentiation. In this study, we investigated cytokine (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, and TNF-α) production by porcine bone-marrow-derived DCs (BM-DCs) stimulated by M. hyopneumoniae, M. hyorhinis, and/or M. flocculare. Results showed that cytokine production levels were relatively homogenous for all evaluated M. hyopneumoniae strains in contrast to M. hyorhinis and M. flocculare strains. The most noteworthy inter-species differences were the overall (i) lower IL-12 production capacity of M. hyopneumoniae, and (ii) higher TNF-α production capacity of M. flocculare. Co-stimulation of BM-DCs showed that M. hyorhinis dominated the IL-12 production independently of its association with M. hyopneumoniae or M. flocculare. In addition, a decreased BM-DC production of TNF-α was generally observed in the presence of mycoplasma associations. Lastly, M. flocculare association with M. hyopneumoniae increased BM-DC ability to secrete IL-10. A higher cytotoxicity level in BM-DCs stimulated by M. hyorhinis was also observed. Overall, this study demonstrated that the combination of M. hyorhinis or M. flocculare with M. hyopneumoniae may participate to the modulation of the immune response that might affect the final disease outcome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Immunological Responses and Immune Defense Mechanisms)

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16 pages, 3582 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

HIV Replication in Humanized IL-3/GM-CSF-Transgenic NOG Mice

by Federico Perdomo-Celis, Sandra Medina-Moreno, Harry Davis, Joseph Bryant and Juan C. Zapata

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010033 - 12 Mar 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5193

Abstract

The development of mouse models that mimic the kinetics of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection is critical for the understanding of the pathogenesis of disease and for the design of novel therapeutic strategies. Here, we describe the dynamics of HIV infection in humanized [...] Read more.

The development of mouse models that mimic the kinetics of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection is critical for the understanding of the pathogenesis of disease and for the design of novel therapeutic strategies. Here, we describe the dynamics of HIV infection in humanized NOD/Shi-scid-IL2rγ^null (NOG) mice bearing the human genes for interleukin (IL)-3 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (NOG-EXL mice). The kinetics of viral load, as well as the frequencies of T-cells, B-cells, Natural killer cells (NK), monocytes, and dendritic cells in blood and secondary lymphoid organs were evaluated throughout the time of infection. In comparison with a non-transgenic humanized mouse (NSG) strain, lymphoid and myeloid populations were more efficiently engrafted in humanized NOG-EXL mice, both in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. In addition, HIV actively replicated in humanized NOG-EXL mice, and infection induced a decrease in the percentage of CD4⁺ T-cells, inversion of the CD4:CD8 ratio, and changes in some cell populations, such as monocytes and dendritic cells, that recapitulated those found in human natural infection. Thus, the humanized IL-3/GM-CSF-transgenic NOG mouse model is suitable for the study of the dynamics of HIV infection and provides a tool for basic and preclinical studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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16 pages, 2068 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characteristics of Listeria Monocytogenes Strains Persisting in a Meat Processing Facility over a 4-Year Period

by Andrea Stoller, Marc J. A. Stevens, Roger Stephan and Claudia Guldimann

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010032 - 07 Mar 2019

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 5971

Abstract

Listeria monocytogenes can persist in food production facilities, resulting in serious threats to consumers due to the high mortality associated with listeriosis, especially in the very young, old and pregnant. We subtyped 124 strains of L. monocytogenes isolated from a meat processing facility [...] Read more.

Listeria monocytogenes can persist in food production facilities, resulting in serious threats to consumers due to the high mortality associated with listeriosis, especially in the very young, old and pregnant. We subtyped 124 strains of L. monocytogenes isolated from a meat processing facility in Switzerland by serotyping, multi locus sequence typing (MLST) typing and whole genome sequencing. We then analyzed their ability to form biofilms and their resistance to the disinfectants benzalkonium chloride (BC) and peracetic acid (PAA). The genotyping results of the strains showed that several clonal populations of L. monocytogenes belonging to CC9, CC204 and CC121 had persisted in this meat processing facility for at least four years. All of the strains showed biofilm forming capacity comparable to a known high biofilm forming strain. Known efflux pumps for BC were present in CC204, CC9 (brcABC) and CC121 (qacH) strains, while strains from other CC showed very low minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for BC. For PAA, minimal bactericidal concentrations of 1.2–1.6% for 20 min and minimal inhibitory concentrations between 0.1 and 0.2% were observed. These values were close to or above the recommended concentration for use (0.5–1%), suggesting that PAA might be ineffective at controlling L. monocytogenes in this and potentially other meat processing facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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17 pages, 3622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Expression of Antimicrobial Peptides in Streptococcus pneumoniae Keratitis and STAT3-Dependent Expression of LL-37 by Streptococcus pneumoniae in Human Corneal Epithelial Cells

by Prerana Sharma, Natalia Sharma, Priyasha Mishra, Joveeta Joseph, Dilip K. Mishra, Prashant Garg and Sanhita Roy

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010031 - 06 Mar 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4360

Abstract

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of bacterial keratitis in the developing world with a growing trend of acquiring resistance against various antibiotics. In the current study, we determined the expression of different antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in response to S. pneumoniae in patients, [...] Read more.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of bacterial keratitis in the developing world with a growing trend of acquiring resistance against various antibiotics. In the current study, we determined the expression of different antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in response to S. pneumoniae in patients, as well as in primary and immortalized human corneal epithelial cells. We further focused on LL-37 and determined its expression in human cornea infected with S. pneumoniae and studied the killing ability of LL-37 against S. pneumoniae. The expression of AMPs was determined by quantitative PCR and the phosphorylation of signaling proteins was evaluated by immunoblot analysis. LL-37 expression was also determined by immunofluorescence and Western blot method and the killing ability of LL-37 against S. pneumoniae was determined by colony-forming units. Differential expression of antimicrobial peptides was observed in patients with S. pneumoniae keratitis. Although S. pneumoniae induced expression of the AMPs in human corneal epithelial cells (HCEC), it did not induce AMP expression in U937, a human monocyte cell line. S. pneumoniae also caused activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in corneal epithelial cells. LL-37 was found to be effective against both laboratory and clinical strains of S. pneumoniae. LL-37 induction by S. pneumoniae in human corneal epithelial cells was mediated by signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation, and inhibition of STAT3 activation significantly reduced LL-37 expression. Our study determines an extensive profile of AMPs expressed in the human cornea during S. pneumoniae infection, and suggests the potential of LL-37 to be developed as an alternative therapeutic intervention to fight increasing antibiotic resistance among bacteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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11 pages, 1915 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Molecular Epidemiology and Genetic Diversity of Zika Virus from Field-Caught Mosquitoes in Various Regions of Thailand

by Atchara Phumee, Rome Buathong, Rungfar Boonserm, Proawpilart Intayot, Nucharat Aungsananta, Akanitt Jittmittraphap, Yutthana Joyjinda, Supaporn Wacharapluesadee and Padet Siriyasatien

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010030 - 06 Mar 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 8152

Abstract

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is an emerging and re-emerging arbovirus disease that is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes. ZIKV infections were first described in Thailand in 1954 from the sera of indigenous residents and several travelers returning from Thailand [...] Read more.

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is an emerging and re-emerging arbovirus disease that is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes. ZIKV infections were first described in Thailand in 1954 from the sera of indigenous residents and several travelers returning from Thailand in 2014. However, reported cases in Thailand have been increasing since 2015 and 2016, and epidemiological information about the vectors of ZIKV is unclear. We investigated the molecular epidemiology and genetic diversity of ZIKV from mosquitoes collected from different geographic regions experiencing ZIKV outbreaks in Thailand. Polymerase chain reaction was used to amplify the non-structural protein (NS5) gene of ZIKV, which was then sequenced. A total of 1026 mosquito samples (626 females, 367 males, and 33 larvae) were collected from active ZIKV patients’ houses. ZIKV was detected in 79 samples (7.7%), including Aedes aegypti (2.24% female, 1.27% male, and 0.19% larvae), Culex quinquefasciatus (1.85% female, 1.66% male, and 0.29% larvae), and Armigeres subalbatus (0.1% female and 0.1% male), whereas no ZIKV was detected in Aedes albopictus. Phylogenetic analysis of the 79 positive samples were classified into two clades: Those closely related to a previous report in Thailand, and those related to ZIKV found in the Americas. This is the first report of the detection of ZIKV in Ae. aegypti, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and Ar. subalbatus mosquitoes, and genetic variations of ZIKV in the mosquitoes collected from several geographic regions of Thailand were examined. Detection of ZIKV in male and larval mosquitoes suggests that vertical transmission of ZIKV occurred in these mosquito species. This study provides a more in-depth understanding of the patterns and epidemiologic data of ZIKV in Thailand; the data could be used for future development of more effective prevention and control strategies of ZIKV in Thailand. Full article

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15 pages, 783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study on the Use of Chitosan as an Eco-Friendly Alternative to Control Fusarium Growth and Mycotoxin Production on Maize and Wheat

by Vanessa G. L. Zachetti, Eugenia Cendoya, María J. Nichea, Sofía N. Chulze and María L. Ramirez

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010029 - 05 Mar 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3630

Abstract

The objectives of the present study were to determine the combined effects of chitosan and water activity (a_W) on growth and mycotoxin production in situ on the two most important Fusarium species (F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides) present on [...] Read more.

The objectives of the present study were to determine the combined effects of chitosan and water activity (a_W) on growth and mycotoxin production in situ on the two most important Fusarium species (F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides) present on maize, and on F. graminearum, the main pathogen causing Fusarium head blight on wheat. Results showed that low-molecular-weight chitosan with more than 70% deacetylation at the lowest dose used (0.5 mg/g) was able to reduce deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin (FBs) production on irradiated maize and wheat grains. Growth rates of F. graminearum also decreased at the lowest chitosan dose used (0.5 mg/g), while F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum growth rates were reduced at 0.98 a_W at the highest chitosan dose used (2 mg/g). Since mycotoxins are unavoidable contaminants in food and feed chains, their presence needs to be reduced in order to minimize their effects on human and animal health and to diminish the annual market loss through rejected maize and wheat; in this scenario, pre- and post-harvest use of chitosan could be an important alternative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium)

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19 pages, 1541 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The 3′ Untranslated Region of a Plant Viral RNA Directs Efficient Cap-Independent Translation in Plant and Mammalian Systems

by Jelena J. Kraft, Mariko S. Peterson, Sung Ki Cho, Zhaohui Wang, Alice Hui, Aurélie M. Rakotondrafara, Krzysztof Treder, Cathy L. Miller and W. Allen Miller

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010028 - 28 Feb 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5189

Abstract

Many plant viral RNA genomes lack a 5′ cap, and instead are translated via a cap-independent translation element (CITE) in the 3′ untranslated region (UTR). The panicum mosaic virus-like CITE (PTE), found in many plant viral RNAs, binds and requires the cap-binding translation [...] Read more.

Many plant viral RNA genomes lack a 5′ cap, and instead are translated via a cap-independent translation element (CITE) in the 3′ untranslated region (UTR). The panicum mosaic virus-like CITE (PTE), found in many plant viral RNAs, binds and requires the cap-binding translation initiation factor eIF4E to facilitate translation. eIF4E is structurally conserved between plants and animals, so we tested cap-independent translation efficiency of PTEs of nine plant viruses in plant and mammalian systems. The PTE from thin paspalum asymptomatic virus (TPAV) facilitated efficient cap-independent translation in wheat germ extract, rabbit reticulocyte lysate, HeLa cell lysate, and in oat and mammalian (BHK) cells. Human eIF4E bound the TPAV PTE but not a PTE that did not stimulate cap-independent translation in mammalian extracts or cells. Selective 2′-hydroxyl acylation analyzed by primer extension (SHAPE) footprinting revealed that both human and wheat eIF4E protected the conserved guanosine (G)-rich domain in the TPAV PTE pseudoknot. The central G plays a key role, as it was found to be required for translation and protection from SHAPE modification by eIF4E. These results provide insight on how plant viruses gain access to the host’s translational machinery, an essential step in infection, and raise the possibility that similar PTE-like mechanisms may exist in mRNAs of mammals or their viruses. Full article

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8 pages, 1142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Influencing Legionella Contamination of Domestic Household Showers

by Deanna Hayes-Phillips, Richard Bentham, Kirstin Ross and Harriet Whiley

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010027 - 26 Feb 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4626

Abstract

Legionnaires’ disease is a potentially fatal pneumonia like infection caused by inhalation or aspiration of water particles contaminated with pathogenic Legionella spp. Household showers have been identified as a potential source of sporadic, community-acquired Legionnaires’ disease. This study used qPCR to enumerate Legionella [...] Read more.

Legionnaires’ disease is a potentially fatal pneumonia like infection caused by inhalation or aspiration of water particles contaminated with pathogenic Legionella spp. Household showers have been identified as a potential source of sporadic, community-acquired Legionnaires’ disease. This study used qPCR to enumerate Legionella spp. and Legionella pneumophila in water samples collected from domestic showers across metropolitan Adelaide, South Australia. A survey was used to identify risk factors associated with contamination and to examine awareness of Legionella control in the home. The hot water temperature was also measured. A total of 74.6% (50/68) and 64.2% (43/68) showers were positive for Legionella spp. and L. pneumophila, respectively. Statistically significant associations were found between Legionella spp. concentration and maximum hot water temperature (p = 0.000), frequency of shower use (p = 0.000) and age of house (p = 0.037). Lower Legionella spp. concentrations were associated with higher hot water temperatures, showers used at least every week and houses less than 5 years old. However, examination of risk factors associated with L. pneumophila found that there were no statistically significant associations (p > 0.05) with L. pneumophila concentrations and temperature, type of hot water system, age of system, age of house or frequency of use. This study demonstrated that domestic showers were frequently colonized by Legionella spp. and L. pneumophila and should be considered a potential source of sporadic Legionnaires’ disease. Increasing hot water temperature and running showers every week to enable water sitting in pipes to be replenished by the municipal water supply were identified as strategies to reduce the risk of Legionella in showers. The lack of public awareness in this study identified the need for public health campaigns to inform vulnerable populations of the steps they can take to reduce the risk of Legionella contamination and exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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12 pages, 3767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of the Immune Responses in Cattle Mammary Tissues Naturally Infected with Bovine Parainfluenza Virus Type 3 and Bovine Alphaherpesvirus-1

by Selim ÇOMAKLI and Selçuk ÖZDEMİR

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010026 - 25 Feb 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3859

Abstract

Bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (BPIV-3) and Bovine alphaherpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) lead to severe diseases in domesticated animals, such as Bovine, sheep, and goats. One of these diseases is mastitis, whose signs may not be observable in cases of viral infection due to the [...] Read more.

Bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (BPIV-3) and Bovine alphaherpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) lead to severe diseases in domesticated animals, such as Bovine, sheep, and goats. One of these diseases is mastitis, whose signs may not be observable in cases of viral infection due to the dominance of other clinical symptoms. This may lead to failure to predict viral agents in subclinical Bovine cases. Since viral infections have not been substantially investigated in mastitis studies, information about immune response to BPIV-3 and BoHV-1 infected Bovine mammary tissues may be inadequate. The present study aimed to determine the presence and prevalence of BPIV-3 and BoHV-1 agents in Bovine mammary tissues, and the immune response of such tissues against BPIV-3 and BoHV-1 infection. For this purpose, we first detected these viruses with qRT-PCR in mammary tissues. Then, we determined the expression profiles of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), CD4, and CD8 genes with qRT-PCR. Lastly, we performed immunohistochemistry staining to identify the presence of IFN-γ, CD4, and CD8 proteins in the mammary tissues. We found that 26, 16, and five of the 120 samples were BPI3-, BoHV1-, and BPIV-3 + BoHV-1 infected, respectively. Moreover, the gene expression levels of IFN-γ and CD4 were strongly up-regulated in the virus-infected tissues, whereas the CD8 gene expression level was only moderately up-regulated. Immunohistochemistry staining results were consistent with qRT-PCR results. Overall, our findings showed a high prevalence of BPIV-3 and BoHV-1 and indicated that cell-mediated immune response plays an important role against BPIV-3 and BoHV-1 infection in Bovine mammary tissues. Meanwhile, IFN-γ is an important cytokine for antiviral immunity against such infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Pathogens)

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32 pages, 767 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Overview of the Most Significant Zoonotic Viral Pathogens Transmitted from Animal to Human in Saudi Arabia

by Omar A. Al-Tayib

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010025 - 22 Feb 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7498

Abstract

Currently, there has been an increasing socioeconomic impact of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animals to humans worldwide. Recently, in the Arabian Peninsula, including in Saudi Arabia, epidemiological data indicated an actual increase in the number of emerging and/or reemerging cases of several viral [...] Read more.

Currently, there has been an increasing socioeconomic impact of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animals to humans worldwide. Recently, in the Arabian Peninsula, including in Saudi Arabia, epidemiological data indicated an actual increase in the number of emerging and/or reemerging cases of several viral zoonotic diseases. Data presented in this review are very relevant because Saudi Arabia is considered the largest country in the Peninsula. We believe that zoonotic pathogens in Saudi Arabia remain an important public health problem; however, more than 10 million Muslim pilgrims from around 184 Islamic countries arrive yearly at Makkah for the Hajj season and/or for the Umrah. Therefore, for health reasons, several countries recommend vaccinations for various zoonotic diseases among preventive protocols that should be complied with before traveling to Saudi Arabia. However, there is a shortage of epidemiological data focusing on the emerging and reemerging of zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animal to humans in different densely populated cities and/or localities in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, further efforts might be needed to control the increasing impacts of zoonotic viral disease. Also, there is a need for a high collaboration to enhance the detection and determination of the prevalence, diagnosis, control, and prevention as well as intervention and reduction in outbreaks of these diseases in Saudi Arabia, particularly those from other countries. Persons in the health field including physicians and veterinarians, pet owners, pet store owners, exporters, border guards, and people involved in businesses related to animal products have adopted various preventive strategies. Some of these measures might pave the way to highly successful prevention and control results on the different transmission routes of these viral zoonotic diseases from or to Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the prevention of these viral pathogens depends on socioeconomic impacts, available data, improved diagnosis, and highly effective therapeutics or prophylaxis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Pathogens)

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15 pages, 288 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceOpinion

Maternal and Congenital Toxoplasmosis: Diagnosis and Treatment Recommendations of a French Multidisciplinary Working Group

by François Peyron, Coralie L’ollivier, Laurent Mandelbrot, Martine Wallon, Renaud Piarroux, François Kieffer, Eve Hadjadj, Luc Paris and Patricia Garcia –Meric

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010024 - 18 Feb 2019

Cited by 98 | Viewed by 13828

Abstract

Women infected with toxoplasmosis during pregnancy do not present symptoms in most cases, but the consequences of the congenital infection may be severe for the unborn child. Fetal damage can range from asymptomatic to severe neurological alterations to retinal lesions prone to potential [...] Read more.

Women infected with toxoplasmosis during pregnancy do not present symptoms in most cases, but the consequences of the congenital infection may be severe for the unborn child. Fetal damage can range from asymptomatic to severe neurological alterations to retinal lesions prone to potential flare up and relapses lifelong. Despite the possible severity of outcome, congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) is a neglected disease. There is no consensus regarding screening during pregnancy, prenatal/postnatal treatment or short or medium term follow-up. Since 1992, France has offered systematic serological testing to non-immune pregnant women, monthly until delivery. Any maternal infection is thus detected; moreover, diagnosis of congenital infection can be made at birth and follow-up can be provided. “Guidelines” drawn up by a multidisciplinary group are presented here, concerning treatment, before and after birth. The recommendations are based on the regular analysis of the literature and the results of the working group. The evaluation of the recommendations takes into account the robustness of the recommendation and the quality of the evidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

11 pages, 239 KiB

Open AccessReview

Helicobacter pylori-induced DNA Methylation as an Epigenetic Modulator of Gastric Cancer: Recent Outcomes and Future Direction

by Jibran Sualeh Muhammad, Mohamed Ahmed Eladl and Ghalia Khoder

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010023 - 13 Feb 2019

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 5479

Abstract

Gastric cancer is ranked fifth in cancer list and has the third highest mortality rate. Helicobacter pylori is a class I carcinogen and a predominant etiological factor of gastric cancer. H. pylori infection may induce carcinogenesis via epigenetic alterations in the promoter region [...] Read more.

Gastric cancer is ranked fifth in cancer list and has the third highest mortality rate. Helicobacter pylori is a class I carcinogen and a predominant etiological factor of gastric cancer. H. pylori infection may induce carcinogenesis via epigenetic alterations in the promoter region of various genes. H. pylori is known to induce hypermethylation-silencing of several tumor suppressor genes in H. pylori-infected cancerous and H. pylori-infected non-cancerous gastric mucosae. This article presents a review of the published literature mainly from the last year 15 years. The topic focuses on H. pylori-induced DNA methylation linked to gastric cancer development. The authors have used MeSH terms “Helicobacter pylori” with “epigenetic,” “DNA methylation,” in combination with “gastric inflammation”, gastritis” and “gastric cancer” to search SCOPUS, PubMed, Ovid, and Web of Science databases. The success of epigenetic drugs such as de-methylating agents in the treatment of certain cancers has led towards new prospects that similar approaches could also be applied against gastric cancer. However, it is very important to understand the role of all the genes that have already been linked to H. pylori-induced DNA methylation in order to in order to evaluate the potential benefits of epigenetic drugs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

20 pages, 7148 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome Mining and Comparative Analysis of Streptococcus intermedius Causing Brain Abscess in a Child

by Elio Issa, Tamara Salloum, Balig Panossian, David Ayoub, Edmond Abboud and Sima Tokajian

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010022 - 13 Feb 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4090

Abstract

Streptococcus intermedius (SI) is associated with prolonged hospitalization and low survival rates. The genetic mechanisms involved in brain abscess development and genome evolution in comparison to other members of the Streptococcus anginosus group are understudied. We performed a whole-genome comparative analysis of an [...] Read more.

Streptococcus intermedius (SI) is associated with prolonged hospitalization and low survival rates. The genetic mechanisms involved in brain abscess development and genome evolution in comparison to other members of the Streptococcus anginosus group are understudied. We performed a whole-genome comparative analysis of an SI isolate, LAU_SINT, associated with brain abscess following sinusitis with all SI genomes in addition to S. constellatus and S. anginosus. Selective pressure on virulence factors, phages, pan-genome evolution and single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis were assessed. The structural details of the type seven secretion system (T7SS) was elucidated and compared with different organisms. ily and nanA were both abundant and conserved. Nisin resistance determinants were found in 47% of the isolates. Pan-genome and SNPs-based analysis didn’t reveal significant geo-patterns. Our results showed that two SC isolates were misidentified as SI. We propose the presence of four T7SS modules (I–IV) located on various genomic islands. We detected a variety of factors linked to metal ions binding on the GIs carrying T7SS. This is the first detailed report characterizing the T7SS and its link to nisin resistance and metal ions binding in SI. These and yet uncharacterized T7SS transmembrane proteins merit further studies and could represent potential therapeutic targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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10 pages, 1271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Experimental Infections of the Human Isolate of Strongyloides Stercoralis in a Rodent Model (The Mongolian Gerbil, Meriones Unguiculatus)

by Sarit Charuchaibovorn, Vivornpun Sanprasert and Surang Nuchprayoon

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010021 - 05 Feb 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4290

Abstract

Strongyloidiasis is life-threatening disease which is mainly caused by Strongyloides stercoralis infection. Autoinfection of the parasite results in long-lasting infection and fatal conditions, hyperinfection and dissemination (primarily in immunosuppressed hosts). However, mechanisms of autoinfection and biology remain largely unknown. Rodent models including mice [...] Read more.

Strongyloidiasis is life-threatening disease which is mainly caused by Strongyloides stercoralis infection. Autoinfection of the parasite results in long-lasting infection and fatal conditions, hyperinfection and dissemination (primarily in immunosuppressed hosts). However, mechanisms of autoinfection and biology remain largely unknown. Rodent models including mice and rats are not susceptible to the human isolate of S. stercoralis. Variations in susceptibility of the human isolate of S. stercoralis are found in dogs. S. ratti and S. venezuelensis infections in rats are an alternative model without the ability to cause autoinfection. The absence of appropriate model for the human isolate of strongyloidiasis hampers a better understanding of human strongyloidiasis. We demonstrated the maintenance of the human isolate of the S. stercoralis life cycle in the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus). The human isolate of S. stercoralis caused a patent infection in immunosuppressed gerbils, more than 18 months. The mean number of recovery adult parasitic worms were 120 ± 23 (1.2% of the initial dose) and L1s were 12,500 ± 7500 after day 28 post-inoculation (p.i.). The prepatent period was 9–14 days. Mild diarrhoea was found in gerbils carrying a high number of adult parasitic worms. Our findings provided a promising model for studying biology and searching new alternative drugs against the parasites. Further studies about the hyperinfection and dissemination would be performed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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17 pages, 1762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Activities of Herbal Toothpastes Combined with Essential Oils against Streptococcus mutans

by Özgü İlkcan Karadağlıoğlu, Nuran Ulusoy, Kemal Hüsnü Can Başer, Azmi Hanoğlu and İrem Şık

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010020 - 01 Feb 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8401

Abstract

In recent years, people have become more conscious about the side-effects of fluoride toothpastes and herbal products have drawn attention as alternatives in the struggle against caries. Studies have focused on the benefits of essential oils obtained from herbs because of their antibacterial [...] Read more.

In recent years, people have become more conscious about the side-effects of fluoride toothpastes and herbal products have drawn attention as alternatives in the struggle against caries. Studies have focused on the benefits of essential oils obtained from herbs because of their antibacterial effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the antibacterial activity of Origanum dubium and Cinnamomum cassia oils combined with herbal toothpastes against Streptococcus mutans. The antibacterial activity of the test materials was determined using the agar well diffusion method before and after the addition of essential oils. We tested the efficacy of Splat Organic and Splat Biocalcium against S. mutans (12 mm and 11 mm, respectively) doubled in combination with Origanum dubium (23 mm for both toothpastes) and tripled with Cinnamomum cassia (38 mm and 36 mm, respectively). Jack N’ Jill toothpaste, which did not initially show any antibacterial effect, exhibited the largest inhibition zones after the addition of the essential oils (38 mm for Origanum dubium and 39 mm for Cinnamomum cassia). The results of this study pointed out that herbal toothpastes exhibit statistically higher antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans (p < 0.05) than their initial forms after the addition of essential oils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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28 pages, 970 KiB

Open AccessReview

Non-typhoidal Salmonella in the Pig Production Chain: A Comprehensive Analysis of Its Impact on Human Health

by Joana Campos, Joana Mourão, Luísa Peixe and Patrícia Antunes

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010019 - 29 Jan 2019

Cited by 94 | Viewed by 10609

Abstract

Salmonellosis remains one of the most frequent foodborne zoonosis, constituting a worldwide major public health concern. The most frequent sources of human infections are food products of animal origin, being pork meat one of the most relevant. Currently, particular pig food production well-adapted [...] Read more.

Salmonellosis remains one of the most frequent foodborne zoonosis, constituting a worldwide major public health concern. The most frequent sources of human infections are food products of animal origin, being pork meat one of the most relevant. Currently, particular pig food production well-adapted and persistent Salmonella enterica serotypes (e.g., Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella 1,4,[5],12:i:-, Salmonella Derby and Salmonella Rissen) are frequently reported associated with human infections in diverse industrialized countries. The dissemination of those clinically-relevant Salmonella serotypes/clones has been related to the intensification of pig production chain and to an increase in the international trade of pigs and pork meat. Those changes that occurred over the years along the food chain may act as food chain drivers leading to new problems and challenges, compromising the successful control of Salmonella. Among those, the emergence of antibiotic resistance in non-typhoidal Salmonella associated with antimicrobials use in the pig production chain is of special concern for public health. The transmission of pig-related multidrug-resistant Salmonella serotypes, clones and/or genetic elements carrying clinically-relevant antibiotic resistance genes, frequently associated with metal tolerance genes, from pigs and pork meat to humans, has been reported and highlights the contribution of different drivers to the antibiotic resistance burden. Gathered data strengthen the need for global mandatory interventions and strategies for effective Salmonella control and surveillance across the pig production chain. The purpose of this review was to provide an overview of the role of pig and pork meat in human salmonellosis at a global scale, highlighting the main factors contributing to the persistence and dissemination of clinically-relevant pig-related Salmonella serotypes and clones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transmission of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria and Genes: Unveiling the Jigsaw Pieces of a One Health Problem)

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14 pages, 2323 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potato Pathogens in Russia’s Regions: An Instrumental Survey with the Use of Real-Time PCR/RT-PCR in Matrix Format

by Alexander Malko, Pavel Frantsuzov, Maksim Nikitin, Natalia Statsyuk, Vitaly Dzhavakhiya and Alexander Golikov

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010018 - 29 Jan 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5305

Abstract

Viral and bacterial diseases of potato cause significant yield loss worldwide. The current data on the occurrence of these diseases in Russia do not provide comprehensive understanding of the phytosanitary situation. Diagnostic systems based on disposable stationary open qPCR micromatrices intended for the [...] Read more.

Viral and bacterial diseases of potato cause significant yield loss worldwide. The current data on the occurrence of these diseases in Russia do not provide comprehensive understanding of the phytosanitary situation. Diagnostic systems based on disposable stationary open qPCR micromatrices intended for the detection of eight viral and seven bacterial/oomycetal potato diseases have been used for wide-scale screening of target pathogens to estimate their occurrence in 11 regions of Russia and to assess suitability of the technology for high-throughput diagnostics under conditions of field laboratories. Analysis of 1025 leaf and 725 tuber samples confirmed the earlier reported data on the dominance of potato viruses Y, S, and M in most regions of European Russia, as well as relatively high incidences of Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus, Pectobacterium atrosepticum, and P. carotovorum subsp. carotovorum, and provided detailed information on the phytosanitary status of selected regions and geographical spread of individual pathogens. Information on the occurrence of mixed infections, including their composition, was the first data set of this kind for Russia. The study is the first large-scale screening of a wide range of potato pathogens conducted in network mode using unified methodology and standardized qPCR micromatrices. The data represent valuable information for plant pathologists and potato producers and indicate the high potential of the combined use of matrix PCR technology and network approaches to data collection and analysis with the view to rapidly and accurately assess the prevalence of certain pathogens, as well as the phytosanitary state of large territories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Pathogens)

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17 pages, 1020 KiB

Open AccessReview

Virus–Host Interactions Involved in Lassa Virus Entry and Genome Replication

by María Eugenia Loureiro, Alejandra D’Antuono and Nora López

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010017 - 29 Jan 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6520

Abstract

Lassa virus (LASV) is the causative agent of Lassa fever, a human hemorrhagic disease associated with high mortality and morbidity rates, particularly prevalent in West Africa. Over the past few years, a significant amount of novel information has been provided on cellular factors [...] Read more.

Lassa virus (LASV) is the causative agent of Lassa fever, a human hemorrhagic disease associated with high mortality and morbidity rates, particularly prevalent in West Africa. Over the past few years, a significant amount of novel information has been provided on cellular factors that are determinant elements playing a role in arenavirus multiplication. In this review, we focus on host proteins that intersect with the initial steps of the LASV replication cycle: virus entry and genome replication. A better understanding of relevant virus–host interactions essential for sustaining these critical steps may help to identify possible targets for the rational design of novel therapeutic approaches against LASV and other arenaviruses that cause severe human disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lassa Fever: Viral Replication, Disease Pathogenesis, and Host Immune Modulations)

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14 pages, 2198 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In silico Identification of Novel Toxin Homologs and Associated Mobile Genetic Elements in Clostridium perfringens

by Jake A. Lacey, Priscilla A. Johanesen, Dena Lyras and Robert J. Moore

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010016 - 29 Jan 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4665

Abstract

Clostridium perfringens causes a wide range of diseases in a variety of hosts, due to the production of a diverse set of toxins and extracellular enzymes. The C. perfringens toxins play an important role in pathogenesis, such that the presence and absence of [...] Read more.

Clostridium perfringens causes a wide range of diseases in a variety of hosts, due to the production of a diverse set of toxins and extracellular enzymes. The C. perfringens toxins play an important role in pathogenesis, such that the presence and absence of the toxins is used as a typing scheme for the species. In recent years, several new toxins have been discovered that have been shown to be essential or highly correlated to diseases; these include binary enterotoxin (BecAB), NetB and NetF. In the current study, genome sequence analysis of C. perfringens isolates from diverse sources revealed several putative novel toxin homologs, some of which appeared to be associated with potential mobile genetic elements, including transposons and plasmids. Four novel toxin homologs encoding proteins related to the pore-forming Leukocidin/Hemolysin family were found in type A and G isolates. Two novel toxin homologs encoding proteins related to the epsilon aerolysin-like toxin family were identified in Type A and F isolates from humans, contaminated food and turkeys. A novel set of proteins related to clostridial binary toxins was also identified. While phenotypic characterisation is required before any of these homologs can be established as functional toxins, the in silico identification of these novel homologs on mobile genetic elements suggests the potential toxin reservoir of C. perfringens may be much larger than previously thought. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Pathogens)

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11 pages, 776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial Activity of Six Essential Oils Against a Group of Human Pathogens: A Comparative Study

by Adrian Man, Luigi Santacroce, Romeo Iacob, Anca Mare and Lidia Man

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010015 - 28 Jan 2019

Cited by 185 | Viewed by 24175

Abstract

Essential oils are concentrated natural extracts derived from plants, which were proved to be good sources of bioactive compounds with antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. This study followed the effect of some commonly used essential oils in micellar and aqueous extract on some of [...] Read more.

Essential oils are concentrated natural extracts derived from plants, which were proved to be good sources of bioactive compounds with antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. This study followed the effect of some commonly used essential oils in micellar and aqueous extract on some of the most common pathogenic bacteria. Frankincense, myrtle, thyme, lemon, oregano and lavender essential oils were tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Both micellar and aqueous extracts were used for determination of their minimal inhibitory (MIC) and bactericidal concentrations (MBC). The most active oils were oregano, thyme, lemon and lavender, while the least active were frankincense and myrtle. Oregano oil presented up to 64 times lower MICs/MBCs than ethylic alcohol, if considered as standard, on all bacteria. Most susceptible bacteria were the Gram-positive cocci, including methicillin resistant S. aureus, while the most resistant was P. aeruginosa. With some exceptions, the best activity was achieved by micelles suspension of essential oils, with MICs and MBCs ranging from 0.1% to > 50% v/v. Only oregano and lavender aqueous extracts presented bactericidal activity and only on K. pneumoniae (MIC = 6.3%). Thyme, lemon and oregano oils present significantly lower overall average MICs for their micellar form than for their aqueous extracts. The present results may suggest some formulas of colloid or micelle suspensions of whole essential oils such as oregano, thyme or lemon oil, that may help in antimicrobial fight. Aqueous extracts of oregano or thyme oil with good antibacterial activity could also be used in selected cases. Full article

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11 pages, 1111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Motility, Biofilm Formation and Antimicrobial Efflux of Sessile and Planktonic Cells of Achromobacter xylosoxidans

by Signe M. Nielsen, Line N. Penstoft and Niels Nørskov-Lauritsen

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010014 - 27 Jan 2019

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4254

Abstract

Achromobacter xylosoxidans is an innately multidrug-resistant bacterium capable of forming biofilms in the respiratory tract of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. During the transition from the planktonic stage to biofilm growth, bacteria undergo a transcriptionally regulated differentiation. An isolate of A. xylosoxidans cultured from [...] Read more.

Achromobacter xylosoxidans is an innately multidrug-resistant bacterium capable of forming biofilms in the respiratory tract of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. During the transition from the planktonic stage to biofilm growth, bacteria undergo a transcriptionally regulated differentiation. An isolate of A. xylosoxidans cultured from the sputum of a CF patient was separated into sessile and planktonic stages in vitro, and the transcriptomes were compared. The selected genes of interest were subsequently inactivated, and flagellar motility was found to be decisive for biofilm formation in vitro. The spectrum of a new resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND)-type multidrug efflux pump (AxyEF-OprN) was characterized by inactivation of the membrane fusion protein. AxyEF-OprN is capable of extruding some fluoroquinolones (levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin), tetracyclines (doxycycline and tigecycline) and carpabenems (ertapenem and imipenem), which are classes of antimicrobials that are widely used for treatment of CF pulmonary infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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10 pages, 1196 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCase Report

Disease Manifestation and Viral Sequences in a Bonobo More Than 30 Years after Papillomavirus Infection

by Markus Hoffmann, Enrika Schütze, Andreas Bernhard, Lennart Schlaphoff, Artur Kaul, Sandra Schöniger and Stefan Pöhlmann

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010013 - 26 Jan 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3570

Abstract

Pan paniscus Papillomavirus 1 (PpPV1) causes focal epithelial hyperplasia (FEH) in infected animals. Here, we analyzed the present disease manifestation and PpPV1 genomic sequence of an animal that was afflicted by an FEH epizootic outbreak in 1987 for which the sequence of the [...] Read more.

Pan paniscus Papillomavirus 1 (PpPV1) causes focal epithelial hyperplasia (FEH) in infected animals. Here, we analyzed the present disease manifestation and PpPV1 genomic sequence of an animal that was afflicted by an FEH epizootic outbreak in 1987 for which the sequence of the responsible PpPV1 was determined. The animal displayed FEH more than 30 years after the initial diagnosis, indicating persistence or recurrence of the disease, and evidence for active PpPV1 infection was obtained. Moreover, the sequences of the viral genomes present in the late 1980s and in 2018 differed at 23 nucleotide positions, resulting in 11 amino acid exchanges within coding regions. These findings suggest that PpPV1-induced FEH might not undergo complete and/or permanent remission in a subset of afflicted animals. Full article

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9 pages, 238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Comparison of Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activities of Selected Fluoroquinolones against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

by Majed M. Masadeh, Karem H. Alzoubi, Wesam S. Ahmed and Aisha S. Magaji

Pathogens 2019, 8(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8010012 - 24 Jan 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3925

Abstract

An in vitro overview of the inhibitory effects of selected fluoroquinolones against planktonic and biofilm cells of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain American type culture collection (ATCC) 43300 and the Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain ATCC 27853 was carried out. Biofilm cells of both [...] Read more.

An in vitro overview of the inhibitory effects of selected fluoroquinolones against planktonic and biofilm cells of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain American type culture collection (ATCC) 43300 and the Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain ATCC 27853 was carried out. Biofilm cells of both strains were less susceptible to the selected antibiotics than their planktonic counterparts. In addition, certain antibiotics were more effective against biofilm cells, while others performed better on the planktonic cells. Against P. aeruginosa, ciprofloxacin was the most potent on both planktonic and biofilm cells, whereas ofloxacin was the least potent on both biofilm and planktonic cells. Moxifloxacin and gatifloxacin were the most potent against both planktonic and biofilm MRSA bacteria, however, not in the same order of activity. Norfloxacin was the least active when tested against both planktonic and biofilm cells. The results of this work are expected to provide insight into the efficacy of various fluoroquinolones against MRSA and Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. This study could form the basis for future clinical studies that could recommend special guidelines for the management of infections that are likely to involve bacteria in their biofilm state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)

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