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Volume 8
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Water, Volume 8, Issue 2 (February 2016) – 34 articles

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2866 KiB  
Article
Physical Modeling on Hydraulic Performance of Rectangular Bridge Deck Drains
by Qin Qian, Xinyu Liu, Michael E. Barrett and Randall J. Charbeneau
Water 2016, 8(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020067 - 22 Feb 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5358
Abstract
This paper presents results from an extensive experimental study on hydraulic performance of new rectangular bridge deck drains developed by the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) Bridge Division. It fits between the deck reinforcement with the top of the drain flush with the [...] Read more.
This paper presents results from an extensive experimental study on hydraulic performance of new rectangular bridge deck drains developed by the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) Bridge Division. It fits between the deck reinforcement with the top of the drain flush with the bridge surface and does not interfere with the structural connection of the bridge rail to the deck. Experiments have been performed by varying drain sizes, the number of open drains in series, approach discharges, cross slopes and longitudinal slopes. Measurements include a series of approach gutter flow depth and ponding width at different stations along the deck, and weir heights for capture and bypass discharges. An accurate prediction model has been developed for the captured discharge. The model reveals that the capture discharge is a function of the drain size, the number of open drains, the Manning’s roughness coefficient, the depth of approach flow, the longitudinal slope, and the cross slope. The rating curve for each individual drain in series is the same when the drain size is 10 cm by 20 cm; however, it decreases slightly along the flow direction when the drain size is 15 cm by 20 cm. Full article
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213 KiB  
Article
Water and Agriculture in a Mediterranean Region: The Search for a Sustainable Water Policy Strategy
by Maria Llop and Xavier Ponce-Alifonso
Water 2016, 8(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020066 - 19 Feb 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5484
Abstract
This paper analyzes two of the main challenges facing agriculture in Europe: technological changes and the application of the principle of cost recovery to water services. Our study takes into account the economic, social, and ecological consequences associated with these measures. Specifically, we [...] Read more.
This paper analyzes two of the main challenges facing agriculture in Europe: technological changes and the application of the principle of cost recovery to water services. Our study takes into account the economic, social, and ecological consequences associated with these measures. Specifically, we consider the effects of these two situations not only on water consumption, but also on environmental, social, and economic indicators. Our study also includes two institutional scenarios involving the possibility or impossibility of performing transactions in formal water markets. By using a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model for the economy of Catalonia, a region located in Northeastern Spain, our results suggest that institutions related with water markets matter in terms of the effects that agricultural policies cause on water resources. They also suggest that greater economic efficiency is not necessarily optimal if we consider social or environmental criteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Governance, Stakeholder Engagement, and Sustainable Water Resources Management)
1200 KiB  
Article
Monitoring of β-d-Galactosidase Activity as a Surrogate Parameter for Rapid Detection of Sewage Contamination in Urban Recreational Water
by Ingun Tryland, Henrik Braathen, Aina C. Wennberg, Fasil Eregno and Anna-Lena Beschorner
Water 2016, 8(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020065 - 18 Feb 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6100
Abstract
Simple, automated methods are required for rapid detection of wastewater contamination in urban recreational water. The activity of the enzyme β-d-galactosidase (GAL) can rapidly (<2 h) be measured by field instruments, or a fully automated instrument, and was evaluated as a [...] Read more.
Simple, automated methods are required for rapid detection of wastewater contamination in urban recreational water. The activity of the enzyme β-d-galactosidase (GAL) can rapidly (<2 h) be measured by field instruments, or a fully automated instrument, and was evaluated as a potential surrogate parameter for estimating the level of fecal contamination in urban waters. The GAL-activity in rivers, affected by combined sewer overflows, increased significantly during heavy rainfall, and the increase in GAL-activity correlated well with the increase in fecal indicator bacteria. The GAL activity in human feces (n = 14) was high (mean activity 7 × 107 ppb MU/hour) and stable (1 LOG10 variation), while the numbers of Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci varied by >5 LOG10. Furthermore, the GAL-activity per gram feces from birds, sheep and cattle was 2–3 LOG10 lower than the activity from human feces, indicating that high GAL-activity in water may reflect human fecal pollution more than the total fecal pollution. The rapid method can only be used to quantify high levels of human fecal pollution, corresponding to about 0.1 mg human feces/liter (or 103 E. coli/100 mL), since below this limit GAL-activity from non-fecal environmental sources may interfere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Water)
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2162 KiB  
Article
Constraining Parameter Uncertainty in Simulations of Water and Heat Dynamics in Seasonally Frozen Soil Using Limited Observed Data
by Mousong Wu, Per-Erik Jansson, Xiao Tan, Jingwei Wu and Jiesheng Huang
Water 2016, 8(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020064 - 18 Feb 2016
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5226
Abstract
Water and energy processes in frozen soils are important for better understanding hydrologic processes and water resources management in cold regions. To investigate the water and energy balance in seasonally frozen soils, CoupModel combined with the generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) method was [...] Read more.
Water and energy processes in frozen soils are important for better understanding hydrologic processes and water resources management in cold regions. To investigate the water and energy balance in seasonally frozen soils, CoupModel combined with the generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) method was used. Simulation work on water and heat processes in frozen soil in northern China during the 2012/2013 winter was conducted. Ensemble simulations through the Monte Carlo sampling method were generated for uncertainty analysis. Behavioral simulations were selected based on combinations of multiple model performance index criteria with respect to simulated soil water and temperature at four depths (5 cm, 15 cm, 25 cm, and 35 cm). Posterior distributions for parameters related to soil hydraulic, radiation processes, and heat transport indicated that uncertainties in both input and model structures could influence model performance in modeling water and heat processes in seasonally frozen soils. Seasonal courses in water and energy partitioning were obvious during the winter. Within the day-cycle, soil evaporation/condensation and energy distributions were well captured and clarified as an important phenomenon in the dynamics of the energy balance system. The combination of the CoupModel simulations with the uncertainty-based calibration method provides a way of understanding the seasonal courses of hydrology and energy processes in cold regions with limited data. Additional measurements may be used to further reduce the uncertainty of regulating factors during the different stages of freezing–thawing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources Management: Innovation and Challenges in a Changing World)
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4798 KiB  
Article
Towards an Efficient Rainfall–Runoff Model through Partitioning Scheme
by Alireza B. Dariane and Mohamad M. Javadianzadeh
Water 2016, 8(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020063 - 18 Feb 2016
Viewed by 4588
Abstract
Partitioning Scheme (PS) is one of the strategies that could play a constructive role in improving the performance of conceptual rainfall–runoff (CRR) models. The main objective of this paper is to develop a Rainfall Runoff-Partitioning Scheme (RR-PS) with the ability of distinguishing different [...] Read more.
Partitioning Scheme (PS) is one of the strategies that could play a constructive role in improving the performance of conceptual rainfall–runoff (CRR) models. The main objective of this paper is to develop a Rainfall Runoff-Partitioning Scheme (RR-PS) with the ability of distinguishing different flow regimes in a basin and simulating each regime separately. The model utilizes a combination of PS and “regular” procedures and is equipped with Fuzzy C-Means (FCM) and Seasonal Partitioning (SP) to recognize different flow regimes. In addition, to avoid excessive increase of the model parameters caused by PS, sensitivity analysis is used to recognize the sensitive parameters. The PS part of integrated model is only run for the “sensitive” parameters and the “regular” part of model is implemented for the “less-sensitive” parameters. Data from three different scale basins in USA and Iran are used to evaluate the models. A HBV-Light (Hydrologiska Byråns Vattenbalansavdelning-Light model) based CRR model (Improved HBV- IHBV) is developed in FORTRAN (Formula Translation) with several modifications for testing the procedures. The results show that in all cases IHBV-based models using PS method perform better than the regular IHBV model. Overall, IHBV-SP demonstrates better performance than the other PS based models. Further improvement is reached by adopting user-defined seasons in IHBV-SP through optimization. Full article
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3304 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Factors Influencing Lab-Scale Studies to Determine Heavy Metal Removal by Six Sorbents for Stormwater Treatment
by Maximilian Huber, Sophia C. Badenberg, Moritz Wulff, Jörg E. Drewes and Brigitte Helmreich
Water 2016, 8(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020062 - 17 Feb 2016
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6906
Abstract
For the development of decentralized treatment systems for road runoff, the determination of pollutant removal capacities is essential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of boundary conditions on the simultaneous removal of copper, nickel, and zinc by six sorbents [...] Read more.
For the development of decentralized treatment systems for road runoff, the determination of pollutant removal capacities is essential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of boundary conditions on the simultaneous removal of copper, nickel, and zinc by six sorbents used for urban stormwater treatment (i.e., granular activated alumina, anthracite, granular reactivated carbon, granular ferric hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and granular activated lignite). For batch experiments, capacities were determined at initial concentrations within the range of 2.5–180 mg/L with a rotary shaker. Further influences were investigated: the use of a horizontal shaker for concentrations of up to 1080 mg/L, a variation of the initial pH value (5 and 7), and the presence of a buffer. Furthermore, the influences of the filtration process on the capacities were studied. Kinetic experiments were conducted for contact times between 5 min and 120 min. Lab-scale column experiments with inflow concentrations of 2.5 mg/L (copper and nickel) and 5.0 mg/L (zinc) at an initial pH of 5 and a contact time of 11 min were performed for comparison. Selected experiments were subsequently carried out with changes in initial concentrations and contact time. One result is that it is essential to conduct batch experiments with the metals of interest. The capacities determined by column experiments deviated from batch experiments. Batch experiments under well-defined conditions can be used to evaluate different production batches. Column experiments give a more faithful capacity by considering realistic boundary conditions and should be preferred to determine efficiencies and service lives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Drainage and Urban Stormwater Management)
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1099 KiB  
Article
Sinuosity-Driven Water Pressure Distribution on Slope of Slightly-Curved Riparian Zone: Analytical Solution Based on Small-disturbance Theory and Comparison to Experiments
by Jihong Xia, Genting Yu, Junqiang Lin, Weijie Cao, Zihan Yi, Lihuai Lin and Laounia Nehal
Water 2016, 8(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020061 - 17 Feb 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4349
Abstract
A curved riparian zone can create highly complex flow patterns that have a great effect on erosion, pollutant transport, surface water-groundwater exchange and habitat qualities. The small-disturbance theory has been applied to derive the analytical solutions of pressure distributions along a sinusoidal riverbank. [...] Read more.
A curved riparian zone can create highly complex flow patterns that have a great effect on erosion, pollutant transport, surface water-groundwater exchange and habitat qualities. The small-disturbance theory has been applied to derive the analytical solutions of pressure distributions along a sinusoidal riverbank. Experiments have also been performed to test the hydrodynamic and geomorphic effects on pressure distribution and to verify the applicability of the derived expressions. The derived expressions were simple, accurate and agreed remarkably well with experimental results for the riparian banks with a low degree of curvature. On the contrary, when a riparian bank had a high degree of curvature, these expressions applying the approach of small-disturbance, could not effectively estimate the pressure distributions for a complex bank boundary or complex flow conditions. Moreover, sensitive analysis has indicated that the disturbed pressures along the riparian banks increased with increasing Froude number Fr, as well as the ratio of bank amplitude to wavelength a/λ. However, a/λ has been found to have more significant influence on pressure variation in subcritical flow. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Riverflow Research)
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4480 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water Quality in a Tidal Estuarine System Using a Three-Dimensional Model
by Wen-Cheng Liu and Wen-Ting Chan
Water 2016, 8(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020060 - 17 Feb 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6429
Abstract
Climate change is one of the key factors affecting the future quality and quantity of water in rivers and tidal estuaries. A coupled three-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality model has been developed and applied to the Danshuei River estuarine system in northern Taiwan [...] Read more.
Climate change is one of the key factors affecting the future quality and quantity of water in rivers and tidal estuaries. A coupled three-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality model has been developed and applied to the Danshuei River estuarine system in northern Taiwan to predict the influences of climate change on water quality. The water quality model considers state variables including nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, and phytoplankton as well as dissolved oxygen, and is driven by a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model. The hydrodynamic water quality model was validated with observational salinity distribution and water quality state variables. According to the analyses of statistical error, predictions of salinity, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients from the model simulation quantitatively agreed with the observed data. The validated model was then applied to predict water quality conditions as a result of projected climate change effects. The simulated results indicated that the dissolved oxygen concentration was projected to significantly decrease whereas nutrients will increase because of climate change. Moreover, the dissolved oxygen concentration was lower than 2 mg/L in the main stream of the Danshuei River estuary and failed to meet the water quality standard. An appropriate strategy for effective water quality management for tidal estuaries is needed given the projected persistent climate trends. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resource Variability and Climate Change)
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998 KiB  
Article
A Methodology to Assess the Water Energy Food Ecosystems Nexus in Transboundary River Basins
by Lucia De Strasser, Annukka Lipponen, Mark Howells, Stephen Stec and Christian Bréthaut
Water 2016, 8(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020059 - 16 Feb 2016
Cited by 128 | Viewed by 17174
Abstract
The “nexus” is a potentially very appropriate approach to enhance resource efficiency and good governance in transboundary basins. Until now, however, evidence has been confined to isolated case studies and the nexus approach remains largely undefined. The methodology presented in this paper, developed [...] Read more.
The “nexus” is a potentially very appropriate approach to enhance resource efficiency and good governance in transboundary basins. Until now, however, evidence has been confined to isolated case studies and the nexus approach remains largely undefined. The methodology presented in this paper, developed for preparing a series of nexus assessments of selected river basins under the Water Convention of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), is a timely contribution to this ongoing debate. The nexus assessment of a transboundary basin has the objective of identifying trade-offs and impacts across sectors and countries and to propose possible policy measures and technical actions at national and transboundary levels to reduce intersectoral tensions. This is done jointly with policy makers and local experts. Compared to an Integrated Water Resource Management approach, the water energy food ecosystems nexus approach concurrently considers multiple sectors and their evolution. This offers the opportunity to better involve key economic sectors—energy and agriculture in particular—in the dialogue over transboundary water resource uses, protection and management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Large Asian River Basins)
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7586 KiB  
Article
Semi- vs. Fully-Distributed Urban Stormwater Models: Model Set Up and Comparison with Two Real Case Studies
by Rui Daniel Pina, Susana Ochoa-Rodriguez, Nuno Eduardo Simões, Ana Mijic, Alfeu Sá Marques and Čedo Maksimović
Water 2016, 8(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020058 - 16 Feb 2016
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 12450
Abstract
Urban stormwater models can be semi-distributed (SD) or fully distributed (FD). SD models are based on subcatchment units with various land use types, where rainfall is applied and runoff volumes are estimated and routed. FD models are based on the two dimensional (2D) [...] Read more.
Urban stormwater models can be semi-distributed (SD) or fully distributed (FD). SD models are based on subcatchment units with various land use types, where rainfall is applied and runoff volumes are estimated and routed. FD models are based on the two dimensional (2D) discretization of the overland surface, which has a finer resolution with each grid-cell representing one land use type, where runoff volumes are estimated and directly routed by the 2D overland flow module. While SD models have been commonly applied in urban stormwater modeling, FD models are generally more detailed and theoretically more realistic. This paper presents a comparison between SD and FD models using two case studies in Coimbra (Portugal) and London (UK). To enable direct comparison between SD and FD setups, a model-building process is proposed and a novel sewer inlet representation is applied. SD and FD modeling results are compared against observed records in sewers and photographic records of flood events. The results suggest that FD models are more sensitive to surface storage parameters and require higher detail of the sewer network representation. Full article
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864 KiB  
Article
Influences on Adaptive Planning to Reduce Flood Risks among Parishes in South Louisiana
by Mary Paille, Margaret Reams, Jennifer Argote, Nina S.-N. Lam and Ryan Kirby
Water 2016, 8(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020057 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7117
Abstract
Residents of south Louisiana face a range of increasing, climate-related flood exposure risks that could be reduced through local floodplain management and hazard mitigation planning. A major incentive for community planning to reduce exposure to flood risks is offered by the Community Rating [...] Read more.
Residents of south Louisiana face a range of increasing, climate-related flood exposure risks that could be reduced through local floodplain management and hazard mitigation planning. A major incentive for community planning to reduce exposure to flood risks is offered by the Community Rating System (CRS) of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP encourages local collective action by offering reduced flood insurance premiums for individual policy holders of communities where suggested risk-reducing measures have been implemented. This preliminary analysis examines the extent to which parishes (counties) in southern Louisiana have implemented the suggested policy actions and identifies key factors that account for variation in the implementation of the measures. More measures implemented results in higher CRS scores. Potential influences on scores include socioeconomic attributes of residents, government capacity, average elevation and past flood events. The results of multiple regression analysis indicate that higher CRS scores are associated most closely with higher median housing values. Furthermore, higher scores are found in parishes with more local municipalities that participate in the CRS program. The number of floods in the last five years and the revenue base of the parish does not appear to influence CRS scores. The results shed light on the conditions under which local adaptive planning to mitigate increasing flood risks is more likely to be implemented and offer insights for program administrators, researchers and community stakeholders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilience and Sustainability of the Mississippi River Delta as a Coupled Natural-Human System)
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942 KiB  
Article
Methodology for Selecting Best Management Practices Integrating Multiple Stakeholders and Criteria. Part 2: Case Study
by Mauricio Carvallo Aceves and Musandji Fuamba
Water 2016, 8(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020056 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4937
Abstract
The selection of stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) for mitigating the effects of urbanization on the hydrological cycle could be a complex process due to conflicting stakeholder views, and varying levels of performance of BMPs across a range of criteria (runoff reduction, erosion [...] Read more.
The selection of stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) for mitigating the effects of urbanization on the hydrological cycle could be a complex process due to conflicting stakeholder views, and varying levels of performance of BMPs across a range of criteria (runoff reduction, erosion control, etc.). Part 1 of this article proposed a methodology based on the application of multi-criteria decision aid (MCDA) methods, which was tested here on a residential stormwater network in the Montreal area. The case study considered green roofs, rain gardens, rain barrels and pervious pavement over a range of economic, social, and water quality and quantity criteria by applying 4 MCDA methods under three different stakeholder views. The results indicated Elimination et Choix Traduisant la Réalité (ELECTRE) III to be the most appropriate method for the methodology, presenting flexibility concerning threshold values, criteria weights, and showing shared top choices across stakeholders (rain gardens, and rain gardens in combination with pervious pavement). The methodology shows potential for more formal applications and research opportunities. Future work may lie in the inclusion of multiple objective optimization, better stakeholder engagement, estimation of economic benefits, water quality modeling, long-term hydrological simulations, and estimating real BMP pollutant removal rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue BMP Development, Implementation, and Performance)
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652 KiB  
Article
Methodology for Selecting Best Management Practices Integrating Multiple Stakeholders and Criteria. Part 1: Methodology
by Mauricio Carvallo Aceves and Musandji Fuamba
Water 2016, 8(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020055 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4725
Abstract
The implementation of stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) could help re-establish the natural hydrological cycle of watersheds after urbanization, with each BMP presenting a different performance across a range of criteria (flood prevention, pollutant removal, etc.). Additionally, conflicting views from the relevant [...] Read more.
The implementation of stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) could help re-establish the natural hydrological cycle of watersheds after urbanization, with each BMP presenting a different performance across a range of criteria (flood prevention, pollutant removal, etc.). Additionally, conflicting views from the relevant stakeholders may arise, resulting in a complex selection process. This paper proposes a methodology for BMP selection based on the application of multi-criteria decision aid (MCDA) methods, integrating multiple stakeholder priorities and BMP combinations. First, in the problem definition, the MCDA methods, relevant criteria and design guidelines are selected. Next, information from the preliminary analysis of the watershed is used to obtain a list of relevant BMPs. The third step comprises the watershed modeling and analysis of the BMP alternatives to obtain performance values across purely objective criteria. Afterwards, a stakeholder analysis based on survey applications is carried out to obtain social performance values and criteria priorities. Then, the MCDA methods are applied to obtain the final BMP rankings. The last step considers the sensitivity analysis and rank comparisons in order to draw the final conclusions and recommendations. Future improvements to the methodology could explore inclusion of multiple objective analysis, and alternative means for obtaining social performance values. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue BMP Development, Implementation, and Performance)
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4890 KiB  
Article
Hazard Ratings of Debris Flow Evacuation Sites in Hillside Communities of Ershui Township, Changhua County, Taiwan
by Szu-Hsien Peng
Water 2016, 8(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020054 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6027
Abstract
Global warming in recent years has resulted in climate change. To cope with future climate change and natural environment changes, much of our planning and thinking needs to be adjusted. To this end, safety and rapidness of evacuation have become primary research goals. [...] Read more.
Global warming in recent years has resulted in climate change. To cope with future climate change and natural environment changes, much of our planning and thinking needs to be adjusted. To this end, safety and rapidness of evacuation have become primary research goals. In this study, geographic information and fuzzy expert systems are applied to debris flow evacuation sites in Ershui Township, Changhua County, for evaluating their hazard ratings. After a geographic information system is used to overlay the environmental sensitivity, FLO-2D is applied to simulate debris flow situations, and the results are utilized to establish a fuzzy expert system that successfully evaluates the hazard ratings of such sites in hillside areas. For future applications, another evaluation reference based on original evacuation sites and routes or evacuation mechanisms and disaster prevention models is proposed as a source of essential assistance to relevant sectors. Full article
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Article
Estimating Sediment Discharge Using Sediment Rating Curves and Artificial Neural Networks in the Shiwen River, Taiwan
by Samkele S. Tfwala and Yu-Min Wang
Water 2016, 8(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020053 - 05 Feb 2016
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7696
Abstract
Sediment in river is usually transported during extreme events related to intense rainfall and high river flows. The conventional means of collecting data in such events are risky and costly compared to water discharge measurements. Hence, the lack of sediment data has prompted [...] Read more.
Sediment in river is usually transported during extreme events related to intense rainfall and high river flows. The conventional means of collecting data in such events are risky and costly compared to water discharge measurements. Hence, the lack of sediment data has prompted the use of sediment rating curves (SRC). The aim of this study is to explore the abilities of artificial neural networks (ANNs) in advancing the precision of stream flow-suspended discharge relationships during storm events in the Shiwen River, located in southern Taiwan. The ANNs used were multilayer perceptrons (MLP), the coactive neurofuzzy inference system model (CANFISM), time lagged recurrent networks (TLRN), fully recurrent neural networks (FRNN) and the radial basis function (RBF). A comparison is made between SRC and the ANNs. Hourly based water and sediment discharge during 8 storms were manually collected and used as inputs for the SRC and the ANNs. Results have shown that the ANN models were superior in reproducing hourly sediment discharge compared to SRC. The findings further suggest that MLP can provide the most accurate estimates of sediment discharge, (R2 of 0.903) compared to CANFISM, TLRN, FRNN and RBF. SRC had the lowest R2 (0.765), and resulted in underestimations of peak sediment discharge (−47%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Watershed Sediment Process)
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4145 KiB  
Article
A Two-Step Approach for Analytical Optimal Hedging with Two Triggers
by Tiesong Hu, Xu-Zhao Zhang, Xiang Zeng and Jing Wang
Water 2016, 8(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020052 - 05 Feb 2016
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4815
Abstract
Hedging is widely used to mitigate severe water shortages in the operation of reservoirs during droughts. Rationing is usually instituted with one hedging policy, which is based only on one trigger, i.e., initial storage level or current water availability. It may perform [...] Read more.
Hedging is widely used to mitigate severe water shortages in the operation of reservoirs during droughts. Rationing is usually instituted with one hedging policy, which is based only on one trigger, i.e., initial storage level or current water availability. It may perform poorly in balancing the benefits of a release during the current period versus those of carryover storage during future droughts. This study proposes a novel hedging rule to improve the efficiency of a reservoir operated to supply water, in which, based on two triggers, hedging is initiated with three different hedging sub-rules through a two-step approach. In the first step, the sub-rule is triggered based on the relationship between the initial reservoir storage level and the level of the target rule curve or the firm rule curve at the end of the current period. This step is mainly concerned with increasing the water level or not in the current period. Hedging is then triggered under the sub-rule based on current water availability in the second step, in which the trigger implicitly considers both initial and ending reservoir storage levels in the current period. Moreover, the amount of hedging is analytically derived based on the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) conditions. In addition, the hedging parameters are optimized using the improved particle swarm optimization (IPSO) algorithm coupled with a rule-based simulation. A single water-supply reservoir located in Hubei Province in central China is selected as a case study. The operation results show that the proposed rule is reasonable and significantly improves the reservoir operation performance for both long-term and critical periods relative to other operation policies, such as the standard operating policy (SOP) and the most commonly used hedging rules. Full article
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807 KiB  
Article
Efficiency of a Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow Constructed Wetland Treatment System in an Arid Area
by Abeer Albalawneh, Tsun-Kuo Chang, Chi-Su Chou and Sireen Naoum
Water 2016, 8(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020051 - 05 Feb 2016
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5660
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the performance and treatment efficiency of the Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow Constructed Wetland treatment system (HSF-CW) in an arid climate. Seventeen sub-surface, horizontal-flow HSF-CW units have been operated for approximately three years to improve the [...] Read more.
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the performance and treatment efficiency of the Horizontal Sub-Surface Flow Constructed Wetland treatment system (HSF-CW) in an arid climate. Seventeen sub-surface, horizontal-flow HSF-CW units have been operated for approximately three years to improve the quality of partially-treated municipal wastewater. The studied design parameters included two sizes of volcanic tuff media (i.e., fine or coarse), two different bed dimensions (i.e., long and short), and three plantation types (i.e., reed, kenaf, or no vegetation as a control). The effluent Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solid (TSS), and phosphorus from all of the treatments were significantly lower as compared to the influent and demonstrated a removal efficiency of 55%, 51%, 67%, and 55%, respectively. There were significant increases in Electrical Conductivity (EC), sulfate, and calcium in the effluent of most HSF-CWs due to evaporative concentration and mineral dissolution from the media. The study suggests that unplanted beds with either fine or coarse media are the most suitable combinations among all of the studied designs based on their treatment efficiency and less water loss in arid conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constructed Wetlands Systems and Management)
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2684 KiB  
Article
Seismic-Reliability-Based Optimal Layout of a Water Distribution Network
by Do Guen Yoo, Donghwi Jung, Doosun Kang and Joong Hoon Kim
Water 2016, 8(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020050 - 03 Feb 2016
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6472
Abstract
We proposed an economic, cost-constrained optimal design of a water distribution system (WDS) that maximizes seismic reliability while satisfying pressure constraints. The model quantifies the seismic reliability of a WDS through a series of procedures: stochastic earthquake generation, seismic intensity attenuation, determination of [...] Read more.
We proposed an economic, cost-constrained optimal design of a water distribution system (WDS) that maximizes seismic reliability while satisfying pressure constraints. The model quantifies the seismic reliability of a WDS through a series of procedures: stochastic earthquake generation, seismic intensity attenuation, determination of the pipe failure status (normal, leakage, and breakage), pipe failure modeling in hydraulic simulation, and negative pressure treatment. The network’s seismic reliability is defined as the ratio of the available quantity of water to the required water demand under stochastic earthquakes. The proposed model allows no pipe option in decisions, making it possible to identify seismic-reliability-based optimal layout for a WDS. The model takes into account the physical impact of earthquake events on the WDS, which ultimately affects the network’s boundary conditions (e.g., failure level of pipes). A well-known benchmark network, the Anytown network, is used to demonstrate the proposed model. The network’s optimal topology and pipe layouts are determined from a series of optimizations. The results show that installing large redundant pipes degrades the system’s seismic reliability because the pipes will cause a large rupture opening under failure. Our model is a useful tool to find the optimal pipe layout that maximizes system reliability under earthquakes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Systems towards New Future Challenges)
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5621 KiB  
Article
Establishment of a Practical Approach for Characterizing the Source of Particulates in Water Distribution Systems
by Seon-Ha Chae, Do-Hwan Kim, Doo Yong Choi and Cheol-Ho Bae
Water 2016, 8(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020049 - 03 Feb 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4669
Abstract
Water quality complaints related to particulate matter and discolored water can be troublesome for water utilities in terms of follow-up investigations and implementation of appropriate actions because particulate matter can enter from a variety of sources; moreover, physicochemical processes can affect the water [...] Read more.
Water quality complaints related to particulate matter and discolored water can be troublesome for water utilities in terms of follow-up investigations and implementation of appropriate actions because particulate matter can enter from a variety of sources; moreover, physicochemical processes can affect the water quality during the purification and transportation processes. The origin of particulates can be attributed to sources such as background organic/inorganic materials from water sources, water treatment plants, water distribution pipelines that have deteriorated, and rehabilitation activities in the water distribution systems. In this study, a practical method is proposed for tracing particulate sources. The method entails collecting information related to hydraulic, water quality, and structural conditions, employing a network flow-path model, and establishing a database of physicochemical properties for tubercles and slimes. The proposed method was implemented within two city water distribution systems that were located in Korea. These applications were conducted to demonstrate the practical applicability of the method for providing solutions to customer complaints. The results of the field studies indicated that the proposed method would be feasible for investigating the sources of particulates and for preparing appropriate action plans for complaints related to particulate matter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Water Challenges)
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10591 KiB  
Article
Case Studies of a Hydrocarbon Capture Technology for Stormwater Quality Class 1 Compliance against EN BS858.1-2002 and Subsequent Field Evaluation
by Darren Drapper and Andy Hornbuckle
Water 2016, 8(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020048 - 03 Feb 2016
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 9226
Abstract
Hydrocarbon spills and management in the marine environment are of significant environmental and public health concern and the subject of many research projects. In freshwater environments the treatment and management of hydrocarbons from point and diffuse sources appears less well investigated. For hydrocarbon [...] Read more.
Hydrocarbon spills and management in the marine environment are of significant environmental and public health concern and the subject of many research projects. In freshwater environments the treatment and management of hydrocarbons from point and diffuse sources appears less well investigated. For hydrocarbon treatment technologies introduced into the European market, they must be tested and comply with the requirements of the European Standard EN BS858-1-2002. This Standard requires laboratory testing of full-scale models. Testing of several models of a hydrocarbon capture technology was performed in accordance with EN BS858-1:2002 at the HR Wallingford, United Kingdom (UK) and repeated at the University of South Australia (UniSA) laboratories. The results of the laboratory testing demonstrated compliance with the Standard’s Class 1 criteria of less than 5 mg/L of hydrocarbons in the effluent. Field testing of several installations of the hydrocarbon capture device in Australia has also confirmed outlet concentrations conforming to the Class 1 requirement of <5 mg/L hydrocarbons. Full article
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2612 KiB  
Article
Winter Irrigation Effects in Cotton Fields in Arid Inland Irrigated Areas in the North of the Tarim Basin, China
by Pengnian Yang, Shamaila Zia-Khan, Guanghui Wei, Ruisen Zhong and Miguel Aguila
Water 2016, 8(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020047 - 02 Feb 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5221
Abstract
Winter irrigation is one of the water and salt management practices widely adopted in arid irrigated areas in the Tarim Basin located in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in the People’s Republic of China. A winter irrigation study was carried out from November [...] Read more.
Winter irrigation is one of the water and salt management practices widely adopted in arid irrigated areas in the Tarim Basin located in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in the People’s Republic of China. A winter irrigation study was carried out from November 2013 to March 2014 in Korla City. A cotton field was divided into 18 plots with a size of 3 m × 3 m and five winter irrigation treatments (1200 m3/ha, 1800 m3/ha, 2400 m3/ha, 3000 m3/ha, and 3600 m3/ha) and one non-irrigation as a control were designed. The results showed that the higher winter irrigation volumes allowed the significant short-term difference after the irrigation in the fields with the higher soil moisture content. Therefore, the soil moisture in the next sowing season could be maintained at the level which was slightly lower than field capacity and four times that in the non-irrigation treatment. The desalination effect of winter irrigation increased with the increase of water irrigation volume, but its efficiency decreased with the increase of water irrigation volume. The desalination effect was characterized by short-term desalination, long-term salt accumulation, and the time-dependent gradually decreasing trend. During the winter irrigation period, air temperature was the most important external influencing factor of the soil temperature. During the period of the decrease in winter temperatures from December to January, soil temperature in the 5-cm depth showed no significant difference in all the treatments and the control. However, during the period of rising temperatures from January to March, soil temperature in the control increased significantly, faster than that in all treatments. Under the same irrigation volume, the temperature difference between the upper soil layer and the lower soil layer increased during the temperature drop period and decreased during the temperature rise period. In this paper, we proposed the proper winter irrigation volume of 1800–3000 m3/ha and suggested that the irrigation timing should be delayed to early December or performed in several stages in the fields with the drainage system. Under the current strict water management and fixed water supply quota situation, the methods are of great practical significance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources Assessment and Management in Drylands)
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4770 KiB  
Article
Assessing Community Resilience to Coastal Hazards in the Lower Mississippi River Basin
by Heng Cai, Nina S.-N. Lam, Lei Zou, Yi Qiang and Kenan Li
Water 2016, 8(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020046 - 30 Jan 2016
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 10525
Abstract
This paper presents an assessment of community resilience to coastal hazards in the Lower Mississippi River Basin (LMRB) region in southeastern Louisiana. The assessment was conducted at the census block group scale. The specific purpose of this study was to provide a quantitative [...] Read more.
This paper presents an assessment of community resilience to coastal hazards in the Lower Mississippi River Basin (LMRB) region in southeastern Louisiana. The assessment was conducted at the census block group scale. The specific purpose of this study was to provide a quantitative method to assess and validate the community resilience to coastal hazards, and to identify the relationships between a set of socio-environmental indicators and community resilience. The Resilience Inference Measurement (RIM) model was applied to assess the resilience of the block groups. The resilience index derived was empirically validated through two statistical procedures: K-means cluster analysis of exposure, damage, and recovery variables to derive the resilience groups, and discriminant analysis to identify the key indicators of resilience. The discriminant analysis yielded a classification accuracy of 73.1%. The results show that block groups with higher resilience were concentrated generally in the northern part of the study area, including those located north of Lake Pontchartrain and in East Baton Rouge, West Baton Rouge, and Lafayette parishes. The lower-resilience communities were located mostly along the coastline and lower elevation area including block groups in southern Plaquemines Parish and Terrebonne Parish. Regression analysis between the resilience scores and the indicators extracted from the discriminant analysis suggests that community resilience was significantly linked to multicomponent capacities. The findings could help develop adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerability, increase resilience, and improve long-term sustainability for the coastal region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilience and Sustainability of the Mississippi River Delta as a Coupled Natural-Human System)
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4006 KiB  
Article
Food, Fracking, and Freshwater: The Potential for Markets and Cross-Sectoral Investments to Enable Water Conservation
by Margaret Cook and Michael Webber
Water 2016, 8(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020045 - 30 Jan 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 10011
Abstract
Hydraulic fracturing—the injection of pressurized fluid, often water, to increase recovery of oil or gas—has become increasingly popular in combination with horizontal drilling. Hydraulic fracturing improves production from a well, but requires a significant amount of water to do so and could put [...] Read more.
Hydraulic fracturing—the injection of pressurized fluid, often water, to increase recovery of oil or gas—has become increasingly popular in combination with horizontal drilling. Hydraulic fracturing improves production from a well, but requires a significant amount of water to do so and could put pressure on existing water resources, especially in water-stressed areas. To supply water needs, some water rights holders sell or lease their water resources to oil and gas producers in an informal water market. These transactions enable the opportunity for cross-sectoral investments, by which the energy sector either directly or indirectly provides the capital for water efficiency improvements in the agricultural sector as a mechanism to increase water availability for other purposes, including oil and gas production. In this analysis, we employ an original water and cost model to evaluate the water market in Texas and the potential for cross-sectoral collaboration on water efficiency improvements through a case study of the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas. We find that, if irrigation efficiency management practices were fully implemented, between 420 and 800 million m3 of water could be spared per year over a ten year period, potentially enabling freshwater use in oil and gas production for up to 26,000 wells, while maintaining agricultural productivity and possibly improving water flows to the ecosystem. Full article
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438 KiB  
Article
SPI Drought Class Predictions Driven by the North Atlantic Oscillation Index Using Log-Linear Modeling
by Elsa E. Moreira, Carlos L. Pires and Luís S. Pereira
Water 2016, 8(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020043 - 30 Jan 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4684
Abstract
This study aims at predicting the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) drought class transitions in Portugal, considering the influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) as one of the main large-scale atmospheric drivers of precipitation and drought fields across the Western European and Mediterranean [...] Read more.
This study aims at predicting the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) drought class transitions in Portugal, considering the influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) as one of the main large-scale atmospheric drivers of precipitation and drought fields across the Western European and Mediterranean areas. Log-linear modeling of the drought class transition probabilities on three temporal steps (dimensions) was used in an SPI time series of six- and 12-month time scales (SPI6 and SPI12) obtained from Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) precipitation datasets with 1.0 degree of spatial resolution for 10 grid points over Portugal and a length of 112 years (1902–2014). The aim was to model two monthly transitions of SPI drought classes under the influence of the NAO index in its negative and positive phase in order to obtain improvements in the predictions relative to the modeling not including the NAO index. The ratios (odds ratio) between transitional probabilities and their confidence intervals were computed in order to estimate the probability of one drought class transition over another. The prediction results produced by the model with the forcing of NAO were compared with the results produced by the same model without that forcing, using skill scores computed for the entire time series length. Overall results have shown good prediction performance, ranging from 73% to 76% in the percentage of corrects (PC) and 56%–62% in the Heidke skill score (HSS) regarding the SPI6 application and ranging from 82% to 85% in the PC and 72%–76% in the HSS for the SPI12 application. The model with the NAO forcing led to improvements in predictions of about 1%–6% (PC) and 1%–8% (HSS), when applied to SPI6, but regarding SPI12 only seven of the locations presented slight improvements of about 0.4%–1.8% (PC) and 0.7%–3% (HSS). Full article
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2076 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Hydrologic Parameters on the Hydraulic Efficiency of an Extensive Green Roof in Mediterranean Area
by Giuseppina Garofalo, Stefania Palermo, Francesca Principato, Theodoros Theodosiou and Patrizia Piro
Water 2016, 8(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020044 - 29 Jan 2016
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7158
Abstract
In an urban environment, green roofs represent a sustainable solution for mitigating stormwater volumes and hydrograph peaks. So far, many literature studies have investigated the hydraulic efficiency and the subsurface runoff coefficient of green roofs, showing their strong variability according to several factors, [...] Read more.
In an urban environment, green roofs represent a sustainable solution for mitigating stormwater volumes and hydrograph peaks. So far, many literature studies have investigated the hydraulic efficiency and the subsurface runoff coefficient of green roofs, showing their strong variability according to several factors, including the characteristics of storm events. Furthermore, only few studies have focused on the hydraulic efficiency of green roofs under Mediterranean climate conditions and defined the influencing hydrological parameters on the subsurface runoff coefficient. Nevertheless, for designing purposes, it is crucial to properly assess the subsurface runoff coefficient of a given green roof under specific climate conditions and its influencing factors. This study intends to, firstly, evaluate the subsurface runoff coefficient at daily and event-time scales for a given green roof, through a conceptual model implemented in SWMM. The model was loaded with both daily and 1-min rainfall data from two Mediterranean climate sites, one in Thessaloniki, Greece and one in Cosenza, Italy, respectively. Then, the most influencing hydrological parameters were examined through a statistical regression analysis. The findings show that the daily subsurface runoff coefficient is 0.70 for both sites, while the event-based one is 0.79 with a standard deviation of 0.23 for the site in Cosenza, Italy. The multiple linear regression analysis revealed that the influencing parameters are the rainfall intensity and antecedent dry weather period with a confidence level of 95%. This study demonstrated that, due to the high variability of the subsurface runoff coefficient, the use of a unique value for design purposes is inappropriate and that a preliminary estimation could be obtained as a function of the total rainfall depth and the antecedent dry weather period by using the validated multi-regression relationship which is site specific. Full article
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4306 KiB  
Article
Using a Geospatial Model to Relate Fluvial Geomorphology to Macroinvertebrate Habitat in a Prairie River—Part 1: Genus-Level Relationships with Geomorphic Typologies
by Anna G. N. Meissner, Meghan K. Carr, Iain D. Phillips and Karl-Erich Lindenschmidt
Water 2016, 8(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020042 - 29 Jan 2016
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6750
Abstract
Modern river ecosystems undergo constant stress from disturbances such as bank stabilization, channelization, dams, and municipal, agricultural, and industrial water use. As these anthropogenic water requirements persist, more efficient methods of characterizing river reaches are essential. Benthic macroinvertebrates are helpful when evaluating fluvial [...] Read more.
Modern river ecosystems undergo constant stress from disturbances such as bank stabilization, channelization, dams, and municipal, agricultural, and industrial water use. As these anthropogenic water requirements persist, more efficient methods of characterizing river reaches are essential. Benthic macroinvertebrates are helpful when evaluating fluvial health, because they are often the first group to react to contaminants that can then be transferred through them to other trophic levels. Hence, the purpose of this research is to use a geospatial model to differentiate instream macroinvertebrate habitats, and determine if the model is a viable method for stream evaluation. Through the use of ArcGIS and digital elevation models, the fluvial geomorphology of the Qu’Appelle River in Saskatchewan (SK) was assessed. Four geomorphological characteristics of the river were isolated (sinuosity, slope, fractal dimension, and stream width) and clustered through Principle Component Analysis (PCA), yielding sets of river reaches with similar geomorphological characteristics, called typologies. These typologies were mapped to form a geospatial model of the river. Macroinvertebrate data were aligned to the locations of the typologies, revealing several relationships with the fluvial geomorphology. A Kruskal-Wallis analysis and post hoc pairwise multiple comparisons were completed with the macroinvertebrate data to pinpoint significant genera, as related to the geospatial model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geospatial Modeling of River Systems)
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2467 KiB  
Article
A Deterministic Model for Predicting Hourly Dissolved Oxygen Change: Development and Application to a Shallow Eutrophic Lake
by Zhen Xu and Y. Jun Xu
Water 2016, 8(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020041 - 29 Jan 2016
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7455
Abstract
Predicting dissolved oxygen (DO) change at a high frequency in water bodies is useful for water quality management. In this study, we developed a deterministic model that can predict hourly DO change in a water body with high frequency weather parameters. The study [...] Read more.
Predicting dissolved oxygen (DO) change at a high frequency in water bodies is useful for water quality management. In this study, we developed a deterministic model that can predict hourly DO change in a water body with high frequency weather parameters. The study was conducted during August 2008–July 2009 in a eutrophic shallow lake in Louisiana, USA. An environment monitoring buoy was deployed to record DO, water temperature and chlorophyll-a concentration at 15-min intervals, and hourly weather data including air temperature, precipitation, wind speed, relative humidity, and solar radiation were gathered from a nearby weather station. These data formed a foundation for developing a DO model that predicts rapid change of source and sink components including photosynthesis, re-aeration, respiration, and oxygen consumption by sediments. We then applied the model to a studied shallow lake that is widely representative of lake water conditions in the subtropical southern United States. Overall, the model successfully simulated high-time fluctuation of DO in the studied lake, showing good predictability for extreme algal bloom events. However, a knowledge gap still exists in accurately quantifying oxygen source produced by photosynthesis in high frequency DO modeling. Full article
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3539 KiB  
Article
Modeling Climate and Management Change Impacts on Water Quality and In-Stream Processes in the Elbe River Basin
by Cornelia Hesse and Valentina Krysanova
Water 2016, 8(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020040 - 28 Jan 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7296
Abstract
Eco-hydrological water quality modeling for integrated water resources management of river basins should include all necessary landscape and in-stream nutrient processes as well as possible changes in boundary conditions and driving forces for nutrient behavior in watersheds. The study aims to assess possible [...] Read more.
Eco-hydrological water quality modeling for integrated water resources management of river basins should include all necessary landscape and in-stream nutrient processes as well as possible changes in boundary conditions and driving forces for nutrient behavior in watersheds. The study aims to assess possible impacts of the changing climate (ENSEMBLES climate scenarios) and/or land use conditions on resulting river water quantity and quality in the large-scale Elbe river basin by applying a semi-distributed watershed model of intermediate complexity (SWIM) with implemented in-stream nutrient (N+P) turnover and algal growth processes. The calibration and validation results revealed the ability of SWIM to satisfactorily simulate nutrient behavior at the watershed scale. Analysis of 19 climate scenarios for the whole Elbe river basin showed a projected increase in temperature (+3 °C) and precipitation (+57 mm) on average until the end of the century, causing diverse changes in river discharge (+20%), nutrient loads (NO3-N: −5%; NH4-N: −24%; PO4-P: +5%), phytoplankton biomass (−4%) and dissolved oxygen concentration (−5%) in the watershed. In addition, some changes in land use and nutrient management were tested in order to reduce nutrient emissions to the river network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resource Variability and Climate Change)
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2993 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of the Occurrence Probabilities of Wet and Dry Periods through a Stochastic Monthly Rainfall Model
by Tommaso Caloiero, Beniamino Sirangelo, Roberto Coscarelli and Ennio Ferrari
Water 2016, 8(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020039 - 28 Jan 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5611
Abstract
Stochastic simulators can effectively generate the intrinsic variability of the rainfall process, which is an important issue in the analysis of the projections uncertainties. In this paper, a procedure for stochastic modeling of precipitation at monthly scale is proposed. The model adopts variable [...] Read more.
Stochastic simulators can effectively generate the intrinsic variability of the rainfall process, which is an important issue in the analysis of the projections uncertainties. In this paper, a procedure for stochastic modeling of precipitation at monthly scale is proposed. The model adopts variable transformations, which are finalized to the deseasonalization and the Gaussianization of the monthly rainfall process, and includes a procedure for testing the autocorrelation. The model was applied to a homogeneous database of monthly rainfall values registered in 12 rain gauges in the region of Calabria (Southern Italy). After the estimation of the model parameters, a set of 104 years of monthly rainfall for each rain gauge was generated by means of a Monte Carlo technique. Then, dry and wet periods were analyzed through the application of the standardized precipitation index (SPI). Some results, confirmed through the application of the drought severity index (DSI), showed that the proposed model provided a good representation of the monthly rainfall for the considered rain gauges. Moreover, the results of the SPI application indicate a greater probability of dry conditions than wet conditions, especially when long-term precipitation patterns are considered. Full article
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1894 KiB  
Article
Sediment Deposition at the Caernarvon Crevasse during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927: Implications for Coastal Restoration
by John W. Day, Jaye E. Cable, Robert R. Lane and G. Paul Kemp
Water 2016, 8(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8020038 - 25 Jan 2016
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8072
Abstract
During the 1927 Mississippi flood, the levee was dynamited downstream of New Orleans creating a 2 km wide crevasse that inundated the Breton Sound estuary and deposited a crevasse splay of about 130 km2. We measured sediment deposition in the splay [...] Read more.
During the 1927 Mississippi flood, the levee was dynamited downstream of New Orleans creating a 2 km wide crevasse that inundated the Breton Sound estuary and deposited a crevasse splay of about 130 km2. We measured sediment deposition in the splay that consisted of a silty-clay layer bounded by aged peat below and living roots above. Based on coring, we developed a map of the crevasse splay. The clay layer ranged from 2 to 42 cm thick and occurred 24 to 55 cm below the surface. Bulk density of the clay layer decreased and soil organic matter increased with distance from the river. 210Pbexcess and 137Cs dating an age of ~1926–1929 for the top of the layer. During the flood event, deposition was at least 22 mm·month−1—10 times the annual post-1927 deposition. The crevasse splay captured from 55% to 75% of suspended sediments that flowed in from the river. The 1927 crevasse deposition shows how pulsed flooding can enhance sediment capture efficiency and deposition and serves as an example for large planned diversions for Mississippi delta restoration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resilience and Sustainability of the Mississippi River Delta as a Coupled Natural-Human System)
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