Spatio-Temporal Variation of Ozone Concentrations and Ozone Uptake Conditions in Forests in Western Germany
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The temporal variance of a time series of 22 years (1998 to 2019) of meteorological parameters and air pollutants at five German forest sites corresponds with the global climatic change and air pollution abatement measures implemented during that time frame.
- The altitude of forest sites and their distance to urban agglomerations as well as the oncoming flow of pollutants (long-range transport of O3 and its precursor substances) and the existence of gaseous reducing agents determine the prevalent O3 concentrations.
- The duration, sequence, and intensity of droughts as well as its synchrony with elevated daytime O3 concentrations typical for Central Europe—especially in the montane belt—determine the exposure of forests to O3 and hence influence the trees’ toxicological defense.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sites
2.2. Measurements
2.3. Methods of Data Analysis
2.3.1. Dataset Quality Assessment
2.3.2. Statistical Methods for Spatial and Temporal Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Temporal, Spatial Variance and Correlations of Pollution and Meteorological Data
3.1.1. Temporal Trends
3.1.2. Spatiotemporal Trends
3.1.3. Correlations between the Parameters
3.2. Characterization of Arid Periods as Conditions of Reduced Gas Exchange at the Forest Sites
3.2.1. Atmospheric Water Balance
3.2.2. Drought Intensity and Elevated Daytime O3 Concentrations
4. Discussion
4.1. Spatial and Temporal Trends of Meteorological and Pollution Data (O3, NO2 and NO)
4.2. The Influence of Drought and Elevated Daytime O3 Concentrations on Forest Trees
4.2.1. Atmospheric Water Balance and Drought Extent
4.2.2. Synchrony of Drought Extent and Elevated Daytime O3
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Region | Station Name | Latitude Longitude | Altitude (m a.s.l.) | Ozone and Meteorology Measurement Heights (m) | Wind Speed Measurement Height (m) | Main Tree Species | Age of Trees [Years in 2015] | Forest Canopy Height (m) | Distance between Forest Plot and ZIMEN Station (km) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ZIMEN Station | Forest Plot | |||||||||
Pfälzer Wald | Hortenkopf | 49°27ʹ N 07°82ʹ E | 606 | 550 | 3 | 10 | European Beech | 60 | 25 | 1.2 |
Westerwald | Neuhäusel | 50°42ʹ N 07°73ʹ E | 540 | 390 | 3 | 10 | European Beech | 123 | 35 | 2.2 |
Westerwald | Herdorf | 50°76ʹ N 07°90ʹ E | 480 | 440 | 3 | 10 | Norway spruce | 101 | 30 | 4.6 |
Hunsrück | Leisel | 49°74ʹ N 07°19ʹ E | 650 | 660 | 3 | 10 | Norway spruce | 137 | 31 | 0.4 |
Westeifel | Wascheid | 50°26ʹ N 06°37ʹ E | 680 | 690 | 3 | 10 | Norway spruce | 109 | 30 | 0.6 |
Parameter/ Unit | Abbreviation | Instrument/Method (Abbreviation) | Origin of the Data as Used in the Present Study |
---|---|---|---|
Ozone (µg/m3) *,** | O3 | UV-Absorption (APOA360, APOA370) | ZIMEN Station |
Nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide (μg/m3) ** | NO2 and NO | Chemiluminescence (APNA360, APNA370) | ZIMEN Station |
Temperature (°C) | T | Platinum thermometer Pt 100 | Intermet Data **** |
Relative air humidity * | rH | psychrometric difference (difference of wet and dry thermometer) | Intermet Data |
Precipitation (mm) | P | Hellmann Totalisator | Intermet Data |
Global radiation (W/cm2) | G | Pyranometer CM 11 Kipp & Zonen, Delft, NL | Intermet Data |
Wind speed (m/s) | W | Cup anemometer in 10m above ground | ZIMEN Station |
Air pressure (hPa) *** | Pair | Barometer | Hourly Data from German Weather Service station Trier-Petrisberg interpolated to the altitude of other stations with the aid of barometric height equation |
Hortenkopf | Neuhäusel | Herdorf | Leisel | Wascheid | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameters | Regression Coefficient (Slope) | Sign. of Slope | r | Regression Coefficient (Slope) | Sign. of Slope | r | Regression Coefficient (Slope) | Sign. of Slope | r | Regression Coefficient (Slope) | Sign. of Slope | r | Regression Coefficient (Slope) | Sign. of Slope | r | |
T (°C) | 95% Quantile | 0.079 | 0.408 | 0.016 | 0.084 | 0.090 | * | 0.518 | 0.048 | 0.257 | 0.038 | 0.207 | ||||
Mean | 0.040 | 0.351 | 0.040 | 0.351 | 0.030 | 0.323 | 0.012 | 0.113 | 0.036 | 0.369 | ||||||
5% Quantile | 0.042 | 0.180 | 0.054 | 0.210 | 0.035 | 0.154 | 0.028 | 0.121 | 0.028 | 0.119 | ||||||
P (mm) | 95% Quantile | −0.010 | * | −0.528 | −0.004 | −0.215 | −0.008 | * | −0.478 | −0.002 | −0.172 | −0.012 | * | −0.460 | ||
Sum ↓ | −11.572 | * | −0.519 | −11.572 | * | −0.519 | −11.107 | ** | −0.555 | 1.001 | 0.059 | −15.468 | * | −0.456 | ||
5% Quantile | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||||
G (W/m2) | 95% Quantile | 3.947 | *** | 0.706 | 3.090 | ** | 0.579 | 2.006 | 0.376 | 2.267 | * | 0.496 | 2.078 | * | 0.430 | |
Mean ↑ | 0.564 | * | 0.450 | 0.564 | * | 0.450 | 0.566 | * | 0.468 | 0.659 | * | 0.519 | 0.649 | ** | 0.540 | |
5% Quantile | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||||
VPD (kPa) | 95% Quantile | 0.014 | * | 0.474 | 0.007 | 0.237 | 0.019 | ** | 0.609 | 0.005 | 0.154 | 0.003 | 0.104 | |||
Mean | 0.003 | 0.336 | 0.003 | 0.336 | 0.004 | * | 0.526 | 0.000 | −0.049 | 0.000 | 0.061 | |||||
5% Quantile | 0.000 | −0.162 | 0.000 | −0.100 | 0.000 | −0.221 | 0.000 | ** | −0.571 | −0.001 | * | −0.497 | ||||
W (m/s) | 95% Quantile | −0.110 | * | −0.509 | −0.004 | −0.051 | −0.115 | *** | −0.894 | −0.001 | −0.012 | −0.070 | *** | −0.938 | ||
Mean ↓ | −0.071 | *** | −0.658 | −0.071 | * | −0.658 | −0.047 | *** | −0.904 | −0.007 | −0.233 | −0.038 | *** | −0.931 | ||
5% Quantile | −0.062 | *** | −0.794 | −0.005 | −0.175 | −0.002 | −0.068 | −0.022 | −0.331 | −0.015 | *** | −0.780 | ||||
O3 (ppb) | 95% Quantile | −0.399 | * | −0.510 | −0.064 | −0.087 | −0.242 | −0.372 | −0.010 | −0.017 | −0.195 | −0.262 | ||||
Mean | −0.099 | −0.302 | −0.099 | −0.302 | 0.008 | 0.031 | 0.065 | 0.309 | −0.074 | −0.274 | ||||||
5% Quantile | 0.049 | 0.170 | 0.321 | *** | 0.775 | 0.220 | *** | 0.707 | 0.062 | 0.193 | 0.039 | 0.180 | ||||
daytime O3 (ppb) | 95% Quantile | −0.499 | ** | −0.528 | 0.632 | 0.259 | −0.348 | −0.419 | −0.179 | −0.242 | −0.226 | −0.257 | ||||
Mean | −0.175 | −0.336 | −0.175 | −0.336 | −0.071 | −0.154 | 0.037 | 0.098 | −0.128 | −0.283 | ||||||
5% Quantile | 0.456 | 0.309 | 0.880 | 0.483 | 0.030 | 0.088 | 0.095 | 0.286 | −0.075 | −0.239 | ||||||
NO2 (µg/m3) | 95% Quantile | −0.489 | *** | −0.728 | −0.919 | *** | −0.915 | −0.839 | *** | −0.890 | −0.668 | *** | −0.831 | −0.773 | *** | −0.917 |
Mean ↓ | −0.233 | *** | −0.808 | −0.233 | *** | −0.808 | −0.312 | *** | −0.909 | −0.291 | *** | −0.889 | −0.305 | *** | −0.916 | |
5% Quantile | −0.071 | *** | −0.725 | −0.123 | ** | −0.623 | −0.135 | *** | −0.814 | −0.117 | *** | −0.798 | −0.076 | ** | −0.618 | |
NO (µg/m3) | 95% Quantile | −0.076 | *** | −0.790 | −0.195 | −0.798 | −0.135 | *** | −0.869 | −0.099 | *** | −0.785 | −0.060 | ** | −0.649 | |
Mean ↓ | −0.014 | *** | −0.806 | −0.014 | *** | −0.806 | −0.032 | *** | −0.803 | −0.020 | *** | −0.754 | −0.013 | *** | −0.679 | |
5% Quantile | 0.000 | 0.00 | −0.005 | −0.155 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Variable | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
alt (m) | 0.077 | −0.645 | 0.086 | −0.036 |
T (°C) | 0.468 | 0.125 | 0.065 | −0.041 |
P (mm) | −0.042 | −0.030 | −0.238 | 0.033 |
G (W/m²) | 0.406 | 0.083 | 0.145 | −0.100 |
W (m/s) | −0.008 | −0.011 | −0.473 | −0.136 |
VPD (kPa) | 0.489 | 0.148 | 0.152 | −0.077 |
O3 (ppb) | 0.480 | −0.012 | −0.019 | 0.004 |
NO2 (µg/m³) | −0.321 | 0.112 | 0.335 | −0.154 |
NO (µg/m³) | −0.147 | 0.074 | 0.328 | −0.198 |
PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Eigenvalue | 3.0482 | 2.3007 | 1.4908 | 1.2428 |
Proportion (%) | 21.8 (%) | 16.4 (%) | 10.6 (%) | 9.1 (%) |
Cumulative (%) | 21.8 (%) | 38.2 (%) | 48.8 (%) | 58 (%) |
Site | uFC (Max PAW) from 0–100 cm | Soil Texture | Classification of the uFC |
---|---|---|---|
Soil Depth in (mm) | |||
Hortenkopf | 104.1 | Sl2-Ss | medium |
Neuhäusel | 173.4 | Lu-Ut4 | high |
Herdorf | 56 | Lu-XGr | low |
Leisel | 63.4 | Ls2 | low |
Wascheid | 90.2 | Ls2 | low |
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Eghdami, H.; Werner, W.; Büker, P. Spatio-Temporal Variation of Ozone Concentrations and Ozone Uptake Conditions in Forests in Western Germany. Atmosphere 2020, 11, 1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11111261
Eghdami H, Werner W, Büker P. Spatio-Temporal Variation of Ozone Concentrations and Ozone Uptake Conditions in Forests in Western Germany. Atmosphere. 2020; 11(11):1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11111261
Chicago/Turabian StyleEghdami, Hanieh, Willy Werner, and Patrick Büker. 2020. "Spatio-Temporal Variation of Ozone Concentrations and Ozone Uptake Conditions in Forests in Western Germany" Atmosphere 11, no. 11: 1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11111261