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Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2021) | Viewed by 43706

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Dr. Giuseppina Avantaggiato

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Guest Editor

Institute of Sciences of Food Production (CNR-ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
Interests: mycotoxins; fungal metabolites; analytical chemistry; development and validation of analytical methods; development and determination of in vitro/in vivo efficacy of feed additives for mycotoxin removal; physical, chemical and biological strategies to reduce mycotoxins in food and feed; development and validation of mycotoxin biomarkers; toxicokinetic studies with farm and lab animals; bacterial pathogens; antimicrobials substances; bacterial toxins; nanoparticles

Prof. Dr. Sabine Schorr-Galindo

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Guest Editor

Qualisud, Univ Montpellier, Avignon Université, CIRAD, Institut Agro, IRD, Université de La Réunion, 34095 Montpellier, France
Interests: mycotoxins; toxigenic fungi; biocontrol; biodegradation; active molecules; fungal ecology; microbial interaction; plant-pathogen interaction; cereals; grapes; apple; pineapple; coffee; cocoa; fermentation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that grow in or on crops and are known to cause human and animal diseases. Too much or too little water during the growing season, temperature variations, pests, and unhygienic conditions for drying and storage are among the major factors that contribute to the proliferation of fungal infections, and subsequently to mycotoxin production. Human and animal exposure to these toxins is mainly through the food supply. Mycotoxins represent a major food safety hazard. A reduction in risk requires an integrated systems approach that includes targeted agronomic cultural practices, biological control methods, and enhancement of host plant resistance, coupled with postharvest technologies such as proper drying, storage, sorting of affected crop products, and development of appropriate decontamination/detoxification strategies, so that affected crops retain at least some economic value. Although some of these strategies have been observed to be effective for mycotoxin controlling and removal from food commodities, however, there are several problems and limitations associated to most of them that still need overcoming.

This Special Issue will address these limitations and will collect data on the most recent advances related to mitigating mycotoxin contamination in food and feed, including masked and emerging mycotoxins, and co-occurring mycotoxins with other chemical and biological contaminants. It will review the latest developed technologies for controlling mycotoxins, including preharvest prevention strategies and postharvest decontamination procedures that minimize mycotoxin hazards and increase consumer safety. The Special Issue, providing new insights into the detoxification and elimination of mycotoxins with developing innovative control strategies, intends to be beneficial to the food and feed industry. Practical factors that affect the feasibility of each method in practical manufacturing will be addressed.

Dr. Giuseppina Avantaggiato
Prof. Dr. Sabine Schorr-Galindo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Mycotoxins
Emerging mycotoxins
Masked mycotoxins
Mycotoxin decontamination/detoxification
Pre-/postharvest management
Physical, chemical, and biological methods of decontamination
Biodegradation
Enterosorption
Biomarkers
Food and feed processing
Food and feed safety

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of a Modified Clinoptilolite Based Adsorbent in Reducing Detrimental Effects of Ochratoxin A in Laying Hens

by Marko Vasiljević, Darko Marinković, Dragan Milićević, Jelka Pleadin, Srđan Stefanović, Saša Trialović, Jog Raj, Branko Petrujkić and Jelena Nedejković Trialović

Toxins 2021, 13(7), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13070469 - 7 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2509

Abstract

Background: The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of modified clinoptilolite (Minazel Plus^®, MZ) as a mycotoxin adsorbent for preventing the negative the effects of ochratoxin A (OTA) on performance, pathohistological changes, and OTA residue in the eggs of laying hens. Methods: Forty eight (n = 48) laying hens (27 weeks old) were equally divided into six groups and depending on the type of addition were allocated to the following experimental treatments for 7 weeks: E-I group-1 mg/kg OTA; E-II group 0.25 mg/kg OTA; E-III group 1 mg/kg OTA + 0.2% of MZ; E-IV group 0.25 mg/kg OTA + 0.2% of MZ; MZ group supplemented with 0.2% of the adsorbent; and control (K, without feed additive). Results: Overall, the addition of 0.2% MZ to laying hen feed mitigated the harmful effects of OTA on target organs and reduced the presence of OTA residue in eggs. The groups that received 0.2% of MZ achieved better production results in terms of body weight, number of eggs, and feed consumption, compared to the other treatments. Conclusions: The current findings confirm the efficacy of MZ in preventing performance losses in laying hens exposed to OTA, as well as for improving the welfare and health of food producing animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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18 pages, 4217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adsorption Mechanism of Patulin from Apple Juice by Inactivated Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Kefir Grains

by Pascaline Bahati, Xuejun Zeng, Ferdinand Uzizerimana, Ariunsaikhan Tsoggerel, Muhammad Awais, Guo Qi, Rui Cai, Tianli Yue and Yahong Yuan

Toxins 2021, 13(7), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13070434 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3228

Abstract

In the food industry, microbiological safety is a major concern. Mycotoxin patulin represents a potential health hazard, as it is heat-resistant and may develop at any stage during the food chain, especially in apple-based products, leading to severe effects on human health, poor quality products, and profit reductions. The target of the study was to identify and characterize an excellent adsorbent to remove patulin from apple juice efficiently and to assess its adsorption mechanism. To prevent juice fermentation and/or contamination, autoclaving was involved to inactivate bacteria before the adsorption process. The HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) outcome proved that all isolated strains from kefir grains could reduce patulin from apple juice. A high removal of 93% was found for juice having a 4.6 pH, 15° Brix, and patulin concentration of 100 μg/L by Lactobacillus kefiranofacien, named JKSP109, which was morphologically the smoothest and biggest of all isolates in terms of cell wall volume and surface area characterized by SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) and TEM (transmission electron microscopy). C=O, OH, C–H, and N–O were the main functional groups engaged in patulin adsorption indicated by FTIR (Fourier transform–infrared). E-nose (electronic nose) was performed to evaluate the aroma quality of the juices. PCA (Principal component analysis) results showed that no significant changes occurred between control and treated juice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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17 pages, 2327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Isolated Metschnikowia pulcherrima Strains from Apples for Postharvest Biocontrol of Penicillium expansum and Patulin Accumulation

by Laura Settier-Ramírez, Gracia López-Carballo, Pilar Hernández-Muñoz, Angélique Fontana, Caroline Strub and Sabine Schorr-Galindo

Toxins 2021, 13(6), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060397 - 2 Jun 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3511

Abstract

Wild yeasts isolated from the surface of apples were screened for antagonistic activity against Penicillium expansum, the main producer of the mycotoxin patulin. Three antagonistic yeasts (Y33, Y29 and Y24) from a total of 90 were found to inhibit P. expansum growth. Identification by ITS region sequence and characterization showed that three selected isolates of yeast should be different strains of Metschnikowia pulcherrima. Several concentrations of the selected yeasts were used to study their in vitro antifungal effectivity against P. expansum on Petri dishes (plates with 63.6 cm² surface) whereas their potential activity on patulin reduction was studied in liquid medium. Finally, the BCA that had the best in vitro antifungal capacity against P. and the best patulin degradation capacity was selected to be assessed directly on apples. All the selected strains demonstrated antifungal activity in vitro but the most efficient was the strain Y29. Isolated strains were able to reduce patulin content in liquid medium, Y29 being the only strain that completely reduced patulin levels within 120 h. The application of Y29 as biocontrol agent on the surface of apples inoculated with P. expansum, inhibited fungal growth and patulin production during storage. Therefore, the results shown that this yeast strain could be used for the reduction of P. expansum and its mycotoxin in apples or apple-based products by adapting the procedure application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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21 pages, 4015 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Changes in the Intestinal Histomorphometry, the Expression of Intestinal Tight Junction Proteins, and the Bone Structure and Liver of Pre-Laying Hens Following Oral Administration of Fumonisins for 21 Days

by Ewa Tomaszewska, Halyna Rudyk, Piotr Dobrowolski, Janine Donaldson, Izabela Świetlicka, Iwona Puzio, Daniel Kamiński, Dariusz Wiącek, Volodymyr Kushnir, Oksana Brezvyn, Viktor Muzyka, Renata Doraczyńska, Siemowit Muszyński and Ihor Kotsyumbas

Toxins 2021, 13(6), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060375 - 25 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3453

Abstract

Fumonisins (FB) are metabolites found in cereal grains (including maize), crop products, and pelleted feed. There is a dearth of information concerning the effects of FB intoxication on the intestinal histomorphometry, the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins, and the bone structure and liver in pre-laying hens. The current experiment was carried out on hens from the 11th to the 14th week of age. The hens were orally administered an extract containing fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2) at doses of 0.0 mg/kg b.w. (body weight), 1.0 mg/kg b.w., 4.0 mg/kg b.w., and 10.9 mg/kg b.w. for 21 days. Following FB intoxication, the epithelial integrity of the duodenum and jejunum was disrupted, and dose-dependent degenerative changes were observed in liver. An increased content of immature collagen was observed in the bone tissue of FB-intoxicated birds, indicating intensified bone turnover. A similar effect was observed with regards to the articular cartilage, where enhanced fibrillogenesis was observed mainly in the group of birds that received the FB extract at a dose of 10.9 mg/kg b.w. In conclusion, FB intoxication resulted in negative structural changes in the bone tissue of the hens, which could result in worsened bone mechanics and an increase in the risk of bone fractures. Fumonisin administration, even at a dose of 1.0 mg/kg b.w., can lead to degradation of the intestinal barrier and predispose hens to intestinal disturbances later in life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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22 pages, 3165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aspergillus flavus Growth Inhibition and Aflatoxin B₁ Decontamination by Streptomyces Isolates and Their Metabolites

by Ixchel Campos-Avelar, Alexandre Colas de la Noue, Noël Durand, Guillaume Cazals, Véronique Martinez, Caroline Strub, Angélique Fontana and Sabine Schorr-Galindo

Toxins 2021, 13(5), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13050340 - 8 May 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6225

Abstract

Aflatoxin B₁ is a potent carcinogen produced by Aspergillus flavus, mainly during grain storage. As pre-harvest methods are insufficient to avoid mycotoxin presence during storage, diverse curative techniques are being investigated for the inhibition of fungal growth and aflatoxin detoxification. Streptomyces spp. represent an alternative as they are a promising source of detoxifying enzymes. Fifty-nine Streptomyces isolates and a Streptomyces griseoviridis strain from the commercial product Mycostop^®, evaluated against Penicillium verrucosum and ochratoxin A during previous work, were screened for their ability to inhibit Aspergillus flavus growth and decrease the aflatoxin amount. The activities of bacterial cells and cell-free extracts (CFEs) from liquid cultures were also evaluated. Fifty-eight isolates were able to inhibit fungal growth during dual culture assays, with a maximal reduction going down to 13% of the control. Aflatoxin-specific production was decreased by all isolates to at least 54% of the control. CFEs were less effective in decreasing fungal growth (down to 40% and 55% for unheated and heated CFEs, respectively) and aflatoxin-specific production, with a few CFEs causing an overproduction of mycotoxins. Nearly all Streptomyces isolates were able to degrade AFB₁ when growing in solid and liquid media. A total degradation of AFB₁ was achieved by Mycostop^® on solid medium, as well as an almost complete degradation by IX20 in liquid medium (6% of the control). CFE maximal degradation went down to 37% of the control for isolate IX09. The search for degradation by-products indicated the presence of a few unknown molecules. The evaluation of residual toxicity of the tested isolates by the SOS chromotest indicated a detoxification of at least 68% of AFB₁’s genotoxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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16 pages, 895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycotoxin Removal by Lactobacillus spp. and Their Application in Animal Liquid Feed

by Chaima Ragoubi, Laura Quintieri, Donato Greco, Amel Mehrez, Imed Maatouk, Vito D’Ascanio, Ahmed Landoulsi and Giuseppina Avantaggiato

Toxins 2021, 13(3), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13030185 - 2 Mar 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

The removal of mycotoxins from contaminated feed using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has been proposed as an inexpensive, safe, and promising mycotoxin decontamination strategy. In this study, viable and heat-inactivated L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T cells were investigated for their ability to remove aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) from MRS medium and PBS buffer over a 24 h period at 37 °C. LAB decontamination activity was also assessed in a ZEA-contaminated liquid feed (LF). Residual mycotoxin concentrations were determined by UHPLC-FLD/DAD analysis. In PBS, viable L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T cells removed up to 57% and 30% of ZEA and DON, respectively, while AFB₁ and OTA reductions were lower than 15%. In MRS, 28% and 33% of ZEA and AFB₁ were removed, respectively; OTA and DON reductions were small (≤15%). Regardless of the medium, heat-inactivated cells produced significantly lower mycotoxin reductions than those obtained with viable cells. An adsorption mechanism was suggested to explain the reductions in AFB₁ and OTA, while biodegradation could be responsible for the removal of ZEA and DON. Both viable LAB strains reduced ZEA by 23% in contaminated LF after 48 h of incubation. These findings suggest that LAB strains of L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T may be applied in the feed industry to reduce mycotoxin contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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18 pages, 2113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Efficacy of Mycotoxin Modifiers and Mycotoxin Binders by Using an In Vitro Rumen Model as a First Screening Tool

by Sandra Debevere, Dian Schatzmayr, Nicole Reisinger, Markus Aleschko, Geert Haesaert, Michael Rychlik, Siska Croubels and Veerle Fievez

Toxins 2020, 12(6), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12060405 - 19 Jun 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3898

Abstract

Ruminal microbiota of cattle are not able to detoxify all mycotoxins. In addition, detoxification can be hampered by adverse ruminal conditions (e.g., low ruminal pH). Hence, in the cattle husbandry, mycotoxin binders and modifiers could be used to prevent animal exposure to mycotoxins. In this study, an in vitro rumen model, including feed matrix, was established as first screening tool to test the efficacy of five products claiming to detoxify mycotoxins. The detoxifiers had different modes of action: (a) binding (three products); (b) enzymatic detoxification of zearalenone (ZEN; one product, ZenA); and (c) bacterial transformation of trichothecenes (one product, BBSH 797). For the mycotoxin binders, the binding to the mycotoxins enniatin B (ENN B), roquefortine C (ROQ-C), mycophenolic acid (MPA), deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and zearalenone (ZEN) were tested at a dose recommended by the manufacturers. The in vitro model demonstrated that all binders adsorbed ENN B to a certain extent, while only one of the binders also partially adsorbed ROQ-C. The binders did not change the concentrations of the other mycotoxins in the ruminal fluid. The enzyme ZenA detoxified ZEN very quickly and prevented the formation of the more toxic metabolite α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), both at normal (6.8) and low ruminal pH (5.8). The addition of BBSH 797 enhanced detoxification of DON and NIV, both at normal and low ruminal pH. The in vitro rumen model demonstrated that the addition of ZenA seems to be a very promising strategy to prevent estrogenic effects of ZEN contaminated feed, and BBSH 797 is efficient in the detoxification of trichothecenes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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15 pages, 2950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Soil Bacterium Strain Desulfitobacterium sp. PGC-3-9 Detoxifies Trichothecene Mycotoxins in Wheat via De-Epoxidation under Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions

by Wei-Jie He, Meng-Meng Shi, Peng Yang, Tao Huang, Qing-Song Yuan, Shu-Yuan Yi, Ai-Bo Wu, He-Ping Li, Chun-Bao Gao, Jing-Bo Zhang and Yu-Cai Liao

Toxins 2020, 12(6), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12060363 - 1 Jun 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3302

Abstract

Trichothecenes are the most common mycotoxins contaminating small grain cereals worldwide. The C12,13 epoxide group in the trichothecenes was identified as a toxic group posing harm to humans, farm animals, and plants. Aerobic biological de-epoxidation is considered the ideal method of controlling these types of mycotoxins. In this study, we isolated a novel trichothecene mycotoxin-de-epoxidating bacterium, Desulfitobacterium sp. PGC-3-9, from a consortium obtained from the soil of a wheat field known for the occurrence of frequent Fusarium head blight epidemics under aerobic conditions. Along with MMYPF media, a combination of two antibiotics (sulfadiazine and trimethoprim) substantially increased the relative abundance of Desulfitobacterium species from 1.55% (aerobic) to 29.11% (aerobic) and 28.63% (anaerobic). A single colony purified strain, PGC-3-9, was isolated and a 16S rRNA sequencing analysis determined that it was Desulfitobacterium. The PGC-3-9 strain completely de-epoxidated HT-2, deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol and 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol, and efficiently eliminated DON in wheat grains under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The strain PGC-3-9 exhibited high DON de-epoxidation activity at a wide range of pH (6–10) and temperature (15–50 °C) values under both conditions. This strain may be used for the development of detoxification agents in the agriculture and feed industries and the isolation of de-epoxidation enzymes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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Review

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23 pages, 592 KiB

Open AccessReview

Aflatoxin in Dairy Cows: Toxicity, Occurrence in Feedstuffs and Milk and Dietary Mitigation Strategies

by Yun Jiang, Ibukun M. Ogunade, Diwakar Vyas and Adegbola T. Adesogan

Toxins 2021, 13(4), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040283 - 17 Apr 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7344

Abstract

Aflatoxins are poisonous carcinogens produced by fungi, mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins can contaminate a variety of livestock feeds and cause enormous economic losses, estimated at between US$52.1 and US$1.68 billion annually for the U.S. corn industry alone. In addition, aflatoxin can be transferred from the diet to the milk of cows as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), posing a significant human health hazard. In dairy cows, sheep and goats, chronic exposure to dietary aflatoxin can reduce milk production, impair reproduction and liver function, compromise immune function, and increase susceptibility to diseases; hence, strategies to lower aflatoxin contamination of feeds and to prevent or reduce the transfer of the toxin to milk are required for safeguarding animal and human health and improving the safety of dairy products and profitability of the dairy industry. This article provides an overview of the toxicity of aflatoxin to ruminant livestock, its occurrence in livestock feeds, and the effectiveness of different strategies for preventing and mitigating aflatoxin contamination of feeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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19 pages, 810 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biological Control and Mitigation of Aflatoxin Contamination in Commodities

by Ferenc Peles, Péter Sipos, Szilvia Kovács, Zoltán Győri, István Pócsi and Tünde Pusztahelyi

Toxins 2021, 13(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13020104 - 1 Feb 2021

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 5533

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced mostly by Aspergillus species. AF contamination entering the feed and food chain has been a crucial long-term issue for veterinarians, medicals, agroindustry experts, and researchers working in this field. Although different (physical, chemical, and biological) technologies have been developed, tested, and employed to mitigate the detrimental effects of mycotoxins, including AFs, universal methods are still not available to reduce AF levels in feed and food in the last decades. Possible biological control by bacteria, yeasts, and fungi, their excretes, the role of the ruminal degradation, pre-harvest biocontrol by competitive exclusion or biofungicides, and post-harvest technologies and practices based on biological agents currently used to alleviate the toxic effects of AFs are collected in this review. Pre-harvest biocontrol technologies can give us the greatest opportunity to reduce AF production on the spot. Together with post-harvest applications of bacteria or fungal cultures, these technologies can help us strictly reduce AF contamination without synthetic chemicals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Removal and Control of Mycotoxins Contamination)

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