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Toxins
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Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins
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Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2022) | Viewed by 39205

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Chiara Cavaliere

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Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, SAPIENZA Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry; mycotoxins; environmental contaminants; food contaminants; polyphenols; sample preparation; metabolomics; peptidomics; bioactive peptides
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Anna Laura Capriotti

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: high-resolution mass spectrometry; hyphenated techniques; omics sciences; proteomics; peptidomics; food analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Carmela Maria Montone

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, SAPIENZA Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: proteomics; peptidomics; protein extraction and purification; bioactive peptide analysis; method development and validation; lipidomics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Andrea Cerrato

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
Interests: high-resolution mass spectrometry; hyphenated techniques; omics sciences; metabolomics; lipidomics; food analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I would like to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue focused on “Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins”.

The objective of this collection is to illustrate the most recent research on the development of novel and/or rapid methods for mycotoxin determination, and to propose new strategies for monitoring and/or reducing mycotoxin contamination. Innovative sample preparation techniques or protocols and the possibility of multiclass mycotoxin detection will be very positively considered for possible inclusion in this Special Issue. Both methods based on (bio)sensors and chromatography with various detectors (including mass spectrometry) are welcome. Applications of already published methods on new matrices without any modification will not be accepted. However, extensive studies and monitoring on the spread of contamination through the food production chain could be of interest for this collection.

This Special Issue is intended not only for an expert scientific readership, but also for researchers that are just starting to work in the field of mycotoxins. Indeed, we hope that it will represent a new and exciting overview for the scientific community, and that it will inspire young researchers.

Prof. Dr. Chiara Cavaliere
Prof. Dr. Anna Laura Capriotti
Dr. Carmela Maria Montone
Dr. Andrea Cerrato 

Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • mycotoxins
  • sensors
  • liquid chromatography
  • gas chromatography
  • sample preparation
  • food safety
  • food production chain
  • multi-mycotoxin determination

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 2435 KiB  
Article
Mycotoxins in Wheat Flours Marketed in Shanghai, China: Occurrence and Dietary Risk Assessment
by Haiyan Zhou, Anqi Xu, Meichen Liu, Zheng Yan, Luxin Qin, Hong Liu, Aibo Wu and Na Liu
Toxins 2022, 14(11), 748; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110748 - 31 Oct 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2016
Abstract
The risk of exposure to mycotoxins through the consumption of wheat flours has long been a concern. A total of 299 wheat flours marketed in Shanghai Province of China were surveyed and analyzed for the co-occurrence of 13 mycotoxins through an ultra-high performance [...] Read more.
The risk of exposure to mycotoxins through the consumption of wheat flours has long been a concern. A total of 299 wheat flours marketed in Shanghai Province of China were surveyed and analyzed for the co-occurrence of 13 mycotoxins through an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. The detection rates of mycotoxins in wheat flours ranged from 0.7~74.9% and their average contamination levels in wheat flours (0.2~57.6 µg kg−1) were almost lower than the existing regulations in cereals. However, their co-contamination rate was as high as 98.1%, especially Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins. Comparative analysis of different types of wheat flours showed that the average contamination levels in refined wheat flours with low-gluten were lower. Based on these contamination data and the existing consumption data of Shanghai residents, point evaluation and the Monte Carlo assessment model were used to preliminarily evaluate the potential dietary exposure risk. The probable daily intakes of almost all mycotoxins, except for alternariol, were under the health-based guidance values for 90% of different consumer groups. Health risks of dietary exposure to alternariol should be a concern and further studied in conjunction with an internal exposure assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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12 pages, 516 KiB  
Communication
Multiple Mycotoxin Contamination in Medicinal Plants Frequently Sold in the Free State Province, South Africa Detected Using UPLC-ESI-MS/MS
by Julius Ndoro, Idah Tichaidza Manduna, Makomborero Nyoni and Olga de Smidt
Toxins 2022, 14(10), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14100690 - 08 Oct 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1594
Abstract
Medicinal plants are important in the South African traditional healthcare system, the growth in the consumption has led to increase in trade through muthi shops and street vendors. Medicinal plants are prone to contamination with fungi and their mycotoxins. The study investigated multiple [...] Read more.
Medicinal plants are important in the South African traditional healthcare system, the growth in the consumption has led to increase in trade through muthi shops and street vendors. Medicinal plants are prone to contamination with fungi and their mycotoxins. The study investigated multiple mycotoxin contamination using Ultra High Pressure Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) for the simultaneous detection of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), Deoxynivalenol (DON), Fumonisins (FB1, FB2, FB3), Nivalenol (NIV), Ochratoxin A (OTA) and Zearalenone (ZEN) in frequently sold medicinal plants. Medicinal plant samples (n = 34) were purchased and analyzed for the presence of eight mycotoxins. DON and NIV were not detected in all samples analyzed. Ten out of thirty-four samples tested positive for mycotoxins —AFB1 (10.0%); OTA (10.0%); FB1 (30.0%); FB2 (50.0%); FB3 (20.0%); and ZEN (30.0%). Mean concentration levels ranged from AFB1 (15 µg/kg), OTA (4 µg/kg), FB1 (7–12 µg/kg), FB2 (1–18 µg/kg), FB3 (1–15 µg/kg) and ZEN (7–183 µg/kg). Multiple mycotoxin contamination was observed in 30% of the positive samples with fumonisins. The concentration of AFB1 reported in this study is above the permissible limit for AFB1 (5 µg/kg). Fumonisin concentration did not exceed the limits set for raw maize grain (4000 µg/kg of FB1 and FB2). ZEN and OTA are not regulated in South Africa. The findings indicate the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination in frequently traded medicinal plants that poses a health risk to consumers. There is therefore a need for routine monitoring of multiple mycotoxin contamination, human exposure assessments using biomarker analysis and establishment of regulations and standards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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12 pages, 1242 KiB  
Article
Elimination of Deoxynivalenol, Aflatoxin B1, and Zearalenone by Gram-Positive Microbes (Firmicutes)
by Cintia Adácsi, Szilvia Kovács, István Pócsi and Tünde Pusztahelyi
Toxins 2022, 14(9), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090591 - 27 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2095
Abstract
Mycotoxin contaminations in the feed and food chain are common. Either directly or indirectly, mycotoxins enter the human body through the consumption of food of plant and animal origin. Bacteria with a high mycotoxin elimination capability can reduce mycotoxin contamination in feed and [...] Read more.
Mycotoxin contaminations in the feed and food chain are common. Either directly or indirectly, mycotoxins enter the human body through the consumption of food of plant and animal origin. Bacteria with a high mycotoxin elimination capability can reduce mycotoxin contamination in feed and food. Four Gram-positive endospore-forming bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis AMK10/1, Lysinibacillus boronitolerans AMK9/1, Lysinibacillus fusiformis AMK10/2, and Rummeliibacillus suwonensis AMK9/2) were isolated from fermented forages and tested for their deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and zearalenone (ZEA) elimination potentials. Notably, the contribution of bacterial cell wall fractions to the observed outstanding ZEA elimination rates was demonstrated; however, the ZEA elimination differed considerably within the tested group of Gram-positive bacteria. It is worth noting that the purified cell wall of L. boronitolerans AMK9/1, L. fusiformis AMK10/2 and B. thuringiensis AMK10/1 were highly efficient in eliminating ZEA and the teichoic acid fractions of B. thuringiensis AMK10/1, and L. fusiformis AMK10/2 could also be successfully used in ZEA binding. The ZEA elimination capacity of viable R. suwonensis AMK9/2 cells was outstanding (40%). Meanwhile, R. suwonensis AMK9/2 and L. boronitolerans AMK9/1 cells produced significant esterase activities, and ZEA elimination of the cell wall fractions of that species did not correlate with esterase activity. DON and AFB1 binding capabilities of the tested bacterial cells and their cell wall fractions were low, except for B. thuringiensis AMK10/1, where the observed high 64% AFB1 elimination could be linked to the surface layer (S-layer) fraction of the cell wall. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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15 pages, 7578 KiB  
Article
Growth and Toxigenicity of A. flavus on Resistant and Susceptible Peanut Genotypes
by Theophilus Kwabla Tengey, Frederick Kankam, Dominic Ngagmayan Ndela, Daniel Frempong and William Ofori Appaw
Toxins 2022, 14(8), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080536 - 05 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1691
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination poses serious health concerns to consumers of peanut and peanut products. This study aimed at investigating the response of peanuts to Aspergillus flavus infection and aflatoxin accumulation. Isolates of A. flavus were characterised either as aflatoxigenic or non-aflatoxigenic using multiple cultural [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin contamination poses serious health concerns to consumers of peanut and peanut products. This study aimed at investigating the response of peanuts to Aspergillus flavus infection and aflatoxin accumulation. Isolates of A. flavus were characterised either as aflatoxigenic or non-aflatoxigenic using multiple cultural techniques. The selected isolates were used in an in vitro seed colonisation (IVSC) experiment on two A. flavus-resistant and susceptible peanut genotypes. Disease incidence, severity, and aflatoxin accumulation were measured. Genotypes differed significantly (p < 0.001) in terms of the incidence and severity of aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus infection with the non-aflatoxigenic isolate having significantly higher incidence and severity values. There was no accumulation of aflatoxins in peanut genotypes inoculated with non-aflatoxigenic isolate, indicating its potential as a biocontrol agent. Inoculations with the aflatoxigenic isolate resulted in the accumulation of aflatoxin B1 and G1 in all the peanut genotypes. Aflatoxin B2 was not detected in ICGV–03401 (resistant genotype), while it was present and higher in Manipinta (susceptible genotype) than L027B (resistant genotype). ICGV–03401 can resist fungal infection and aflatoxin accumulation than L027B and Manipinta. Non-aflatoxigenic isolate detected in this study could further be investigated as a biocontrol agent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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12 pages, 2529 KiB  
Article
Development and Validation of an Automated Magneto-Controlled Pretreatment for Chromatography-Free Detection of Aflatoxin B1 in Cereals and Oils through Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
by Jin Ye, Mengyao Zheng, Haihua Ma, Zhihong Xuan, Wei Tian, Hongmei Liu, Songxue Wang and Yuan Zhang
Toxins 2022, 14(7), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070454 - 01 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1952
Abstract
A chromatography-free detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in cereals and oils through atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) has been developed using quantum dots and immunomagnetic beads. A magneto-controlled pretreatment platform for automatic purification, labeling, and digestion was constructed, and AFB1 [...] Read more.
A chromatography-free detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in cereals and oils through atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) has been developed using quantum dots and immunomagnetic beads. A magneto-controlled pretreatment platform for automatic purification, labeling, and digestion was constructed, and AFB1 detection through AAS was enabled. Under optimal conditions, this immunoassay exhibited high sensitivity for AFB1 detection, with limits of detection as low as 0.04 μg/kg and a linear dynamic range of 2.5–240 μg/kg. The recoveries for four different food matrices ranged from 92.6% to 108.7%, with intra- and inter-day standard deviations of 0.7–6.3% and 0.6–6.9%, respectively. The method was successfully applied to the detection of AFB1 in husked rice, maize, and polished rice samples, and the detection results were not significantly different from those of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The proposed method realized the detection of mycotoxins through AAS for the first time. It provides a new route for AFB1 detection, expands the application scope of AAS, and provides a reference for the simultaneous determination of multiple poisonous compounds (such as mycotoxins and heavy metals). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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12 pages, 844 KiB  
Article
Mycotoxins in Tea ((Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze)): Contamination and Dietary Exposure Profiling in the Chinese Population
by Haiyan Zhou, Zheng Yan, Aibo Wu and Na Liu
Toxins 2022, 14(7), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070452 - 01 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2015
Abstract
Tea is popular worldwide with multiple health benefits. It may be contaminated by the accidental introduction of toxigenic fungi during production and storage. The present study focuses on potential mycotoxin contamination in tea and the probable dietary exposure assessments associated with consumption. The [...] Read more.
Tea is popular worldwide with multiple health benefits. It may be contaminated by the accidental introduction of toxigenic fungi during production and storage. The present study focuses on potential mycotoxin contamination in tea and the probable dietary exposure assessments associated with consumption. The contamination levels for 16 mycotoxins in 352 Chinese tea samples were determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Average concentrations of almost all mycotoxins in tea samples were below the established regulations, except for ochratoxin A in the dark tea samples. A risk assessment was performed for the worst-case scenarios by point evaluation and Monte Carlo assessment model using the obtained mycotoxin levels and the available green, oolong, black, and dark tea consumption data from cities in China. Additionally, we discuss dietary risk through tea consumption as beverages and dietary supplements. In conclusion, there is no dietary risk of exposure to mycotoxins through tea consumption in the Chinese population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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14 pages, 602 KiB  
Article
Toolbox for the Extraction and Quantification of Ochratoxin A and Ochratoxin Alpha Applicable for Different Pig and Poultry Matrices
by Barbara Streit, Tibor Czabany, Georg Weingart, Martina Marchetti-Deschmann and Shreenath Prasad
Toxins 2022, 14(7), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070432 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1908
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the major mycotoxins causing severe effects on the health of humans and animals. Ochratoxin alpha (OTα) is a metabolite of OTA, which is produced through microbial or enzymatic hydrolysis, and one of the preferred routes of OTA [...] Read more.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the major mycotoxins causing severe effects on the health of humans and animals. Ochratoxin alpha (OTα) is a metabolite of OTA, which is produced through microbial or enzymatic hydrolysis, and one of the preferred routes of OTA detoxification. The methods described here are applicable for the extraction and quantification of OTA and OTα in several pig and poultry matrices such as feed, feces/excreta, urine, plasma, dried blood spots, and tissue samples such as liver, kidney, muscle, skin, and fat. The samples are homogenized and extracted. Extraction is either based on a stepwise extraction using ethyl acetate/sodium hydrogencarbonate/ethyl acetate or an acetonitrile/water mixture. Quantitative analysis is based on reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Method validation was successfully performed and the linearity, limit of quantification, accuracy, precision as well as the stability of the samples, were evaluated. The analyte recovery of the spiked samples was between 80 and 120% (80–150% for spiked concentrations ≤ 1 ng/g or ng/mL) and the relative standard deviation was ≤ 15%. Therefore, we provide a toolbox for the extraction and quantification of OTA and OTα in all relevant pig and poultry matrices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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15 pages, 1963 KiB  
Article
Development of a Novel UPLC-MS/MS Method for the Simultaneous Determination of 16 Mycotoxins in Different Tea Categories
by Haiyan Zhou, Zheng Yan, Song Yu, Aibo Wu and Na Liu
Toxins 2022, 14(3), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030169 - 24 Feb 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2130
Abstract
The contamination of potential mycotoxins in tea production and consumption has always been a concern. However, the risk monitoring on multiple mycotoxins remains a challenge by existing methods due to the high cost and complex operation in tea matrices. This research has developed [...] Read more.
The contamination of potential mycotoxins in tea production and consumption has always been a concern. However, the risk monitoring on multiple mycotoxins remains a challenge by existing methods due to the high cost and complex operation in tea matrices. This research has developed a simple ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry strategy based on our homemade purification column, which can be applied in the detections of mycotoxins in complex tea matrices with high-effectively purifying and removing pigment capacity for 16 mycotoxins. The limits of detection and the limits of quantification were in the ranges of 0.015~15.00 and 0.03~30.00 µg·kg−1 for 16 mycotoxins, respectively. Recoveries from mycotoxin-fortified tea samples (0.13~1200 µg·kg−1) in different tea matrices ranged from 61.27 to 118.46%, with their relative standard deviations below 20%. Moreover, this method has been successfully applied to the analysis and investigation of the levels of 16 mycotoxins in major categories of tea and the monitoring of multiple mycotoxins in processed samples of ripened Pu-erh. In conclusion, the proposed strategy is simple, effective, time-saving, and low-cost for the determination of a large number of tea samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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21 pages, 12431 KiB  
Article
Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize Field Soils: Method Validation and Implications for Sampling Strategy
by Kilian G. J. Kenngott, Julius Albert, Friederike Meyer-Wolfarth, Gabriele E. Schaumann and Katherine Muñoz
Toxins 2022, 14(2), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020130 - 09 Feb 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2035
Abstract
While mycotoxins are generally regarded as food contamination issues, there is growing interest in mycotoxins as environmental pollutants. The main sources of trichothecene and zearalenone mycotoxins in the environment are mainly attributed to Fusarium infested fields, where mycotoxins can wash off in infested [...] Read more.
While mycotoxins are generally regarded as food contamination issues, there is growing interest in mycotoxins as environmental pollutants. The main sources of trichothecene and zearalenone mycotoxins in the environment are mainly attributed to Fusarium infested fields, where mycotoxins can wash off in infested plants or harvest residues. Subsequently, mycotoxins inevitably enter the soil. In this context, investigations into the effects, fate, and transport are still needed. However, there is a lack of analytical methods used to determine Fusarium toxins in soil matrices. We aimed to validate an analytical method capable of determining the toxins nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-AcDON), and zearalenone (ZEN), at environmentally relevant concentrations, in five contrasting agricultural soils. Soils were spiked at three levels (3, 9 and 15 ng g−1), extracted by solid-liquid extraction assisted with ultrasonication, using a generic solvent composition of acetonitrile:water 84:16 (v:v) and measured by LC–HRMS. Method validation was successful for NIV, DON, and 15-AcDON with mean recoveries > 93% and RSDr < 10%. ZEN failed the validation criteria. The validated method was applied to eight conventionally managed maize field soils during harvest season, to provide a first insight into DON, NIV, and 15-AcDON levels. Mycotoxins were present in two out of eight sampled maize fields. Soil mycotoxin concentrations ranged from 0.53 to 19.4 ng g−1 and 0.8 to 2.2 ng g−1 for DON and NIV, respectively. Additionally, we found indication that “hot-spot” concentrations were restricted to small scales (<5 cm) with implications for field scale soil monitoring strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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13 pages, 827 KiB  
Article
Bioaccessibility Study of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A in Bread Enriched with Fermented Milk Whey and/or Pumpkin
by Laura Escrivá, Fojan Agahi, Pilar Vila-Donat, Jordi Mañes, Giuseppe Meca and Lara Manyes
Toxins 2022, 14(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14010006 - 22 Dec 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3570
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins in cereals and cereal products remains a significant issue. The use of natural ingredients such as pumpkin and whey, which contain bioactive compounds, could be a strategy to reduce the use of conventional chemical preservatives. The aim of the [...] Read more.
The presence of mycotoxins in cereals and cereal products remains a significant issue. The use of natural ingredients such as pumpkin and whey, which contain bioactive compounds, could be a strategy to reduce the use of conventional chemical preservatives. The aim of the present work was to study the bioaccessibility of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin (OTA) in bread, as well as to evaluate the effect of milk whey (with and without lactic acid bacteria fermentation) and pumpkin on reducing mycotoxins bioaccessibility. Different bread typologies were prepared and subjected to an in vitro digestion model. Gastric and intestinal extracts were analyzed by HPLC–MS/qTOF and mycotoxins bioaccessibility was calculated. All the tested ingredients but one significantly reduced mycotoxin intestinal bioaccessibility. Pumpkin powder demonstrated to be the most effective ingredient showing significant reductions of AFB1 and OTA bioaccessibility up to 74% and 34%, respectively. Whey, fermented whey, and the combination of pumpkin-fermented whey showed intestinal bioaccessibility reductions between 57–68% for AFB1, and between 11–20% for OTA. These results pointed to pumpkin and milk whey as potential bioactive ingredients that may have promising applications in the bakery industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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Review

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30 pages, 2214 KiB  
Review
Contamination, Detection and Control of Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables
by Mina Nan, Huali Xue and Yang Bi
Toxins 2022, 14(5), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14050309 - 27 Apr 2022
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7355
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by pathogenic fungi that colonize fruits and vegetables either during harvesting or during storage. Mycotoxin contamination in fruits and vegetables has been a major problem worldwide, which poses a serious threat to human and animal health through the [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by pathogenic fungi that colonize fruits and vegetables either during harvesting or during storage. Mycotoxin contamination in fruits and vegetables has been a major problem worldwide, which poses a serious threat to human and animal health through the food chain. This review systematically describes the major mycotoxigenic fungi and the produced mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, analyzes recent mycotoxin detection technologies including chromatography coupled with detector (i.e., mass, ultraviolet, fluorescence, etc.) technology, electrochemical biosensors technology and immunological techniques, as well as summarizes the degradation and detoxification technologies of mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, including physical, chemical and biological methods. The future prospect is also proposed to provide an overview and suggestions for future mycotoxin research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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53 pages, 11480 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress in Rapid Determination of Mycotoxins Based on Emerging Biorecognition Molecules: A Review
by Yanru Wang, Cui Zhang, Jianlong Wang and Dietmar Knopp
Toxins 2022, 14(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020073 - 20 Jan 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9459
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species, which pose significant risk to humans and livestock. The mycotoxins which are produced from Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium are considered most important and therefore regulated in food- and feedstuffs. Analyses are predominantly performed by [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species, which pose significant risk to humans and livestock. The mycotoxins which are produced from Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium are considered most important and therefore regulated in food- and feedstuffs. Analyses are predominantly performed by official laboratory methods in centralized labs by expert technicians. There is an urgent demand for new low-cost, easy-to-use, and portable analytical devices for rapid on-site determination. Most significant advances were realized in the field bioanalytical techniques based on molecular recognition. This review aims to discuss recent progress in the generation of native biomolecules and new bioinspired materials towards mycotoxins for the development of reliable bioreceptor-based analytical methods. After brief presentation of basic knowledge regarding characteristics of most important mycotoxins, the generation, benefits, and limitations of present and emerging biorecognition molecules, such as polyclonal (pAb), monoclonal (mAb), recombinant antibodies (rAb), aptamers, short peptides, and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), are discussed. Hereinafter, the use of binders in different areas of application, including sample preparation, microplate- and tube-based assays, lateral flow devices, and biosensors, is highlighted. Special focus, on a global scale, is placed on commercial availability of single receptor molecules, test-kits, and biosensor platforms using multiplexed bead-based suspension assays and planar biochip arrays. Future outlook is given with special emphasis on new challenges, such as increasing use of rAb based on synthetic and naïve antibody libraries to renounce animal immunization, multiple-analyte test-kits and high-throughput multiplexing, and determination of masked mycotoxins, including stereoisomeric degradation products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection, Control and Contamination of Mycotoxins)
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