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Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2024 | Viewed by 34043

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Nerija Žurauskienė

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Functional Materials and Electronics, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Sauletekio Ave. 3, 10257 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: magnetic field sensors; magnetic thin films, nanostructures and their technologies; magnetoresistive materials; high pulsed magnetic fields; high pulsed electric fields; electroporation of biological cells
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The global market for magnetic field sensors is expected to grow due to presence of a large automotive industry, demand for industrial control and automation, development of intelligent transport systems, and continuous growth of consumer electronics and other fields of applications. Moreover, new developments in advanced world-scale scientific experimental equipment, such as ITER Tokamak, Stellarator, free-electron lasers, electromagnetic launchers or high-field pulsed magnets require precise magnetic diagnostics in harsh environments. Therefore, the development of new magnetic sensor technologies with increased capabilities and wider ranges of operation is of great importance.

Despite the widespread use of Lorentz force-based magnetic sensors (Hall sensors), an increasing interest in magnetic sensors based on so-called magnetoresistive xMR (anisotropic AMR, tunneling TMR, giant GMR, and colossal CMR) effects suggests a possibility to integrate them with standard microelectronics technologies, such as CMOS chips, and to develop sensors systems with higher precision and lower dimensions of single components. Further, the other types of magnetic sensors, such as magneto-optic, magnetoimpedance or fluxgate sensors, are used in special industrial areas. Each application has specific requirements for the sensor fabrication technology, device specifications, magnetic field and temperature ranges of operation, and sensor accuracy.

Therefore, we invite the international community from academia and industry to present their recent developments by submitting papers for the Special Issue “Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications”. Topics include but are not limited to:

  • Magnetic materials, films, and structures and their technologies;
  • Magnetoresistive xMR (anisotropic AMR, tunneling TMR, giant GMR, colossal CMR) sensors;
  • Hall sensors;
  • Magnetic sensors arrays and systems;
  • Integrated magnetic sensors;
  • Data processing and control in magnetic sensors systems;
  • Magnetic sensors in robotics;
  • Magnetic position sensors;
  • Magnetic sensors in electric vehicles and other automotive applications;
  • Magnetic sensors in intelligent transport systems (ITS);
  • Magnetic levitation;
  • Magnetic sensors for electric power grids testing and monitoring;
  • Electric current sensing;
  • Magnetic field measurements in harsh environments (high temperatures; cryogenic temperatures; high pressure; radioactive radiation; electromagnetic radiation; etc.)
  • Magnetic sensors for high magnetic field measurements (electromagnetic launchers; pulsed-field magnets; electromagnetic metal forming and welding; Tokamak and Stellarator diagnostics; etc.)

Prof. Dr. Nerija Žurauskienė
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Magnetic materials
  • Magnetic films and structures
  • Magnetoresistive sensors
  • Hall sensors
  • Magnetic sensors arrays and systems
  • Integrated magnetic sensors
  • Magnetic sensors data processing and control
  • Robotics
  • Magnetic position sensors
  • Electric vehicles
  • Intelligent transport systems
  • Magnetic levitation
  • Electric power grids testing and monitoring
  • Electric current sensing
  • Magnetic field measurements at harsh environments
  • High magnetic field measurements
  • Electromagnetic launchers
  • Pulsed-field magnets
  • Electromagnetic metal forming and welding
  • Tokamak diagnostics
  • Stellarator diagnostics

Published Papers (16 papers)

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15 pages, 9015 KiB  
Article
Measurement System for Short-Pulsed Magnetic Fields
by Voitech Stankevič, Skirmantas Keršulis, Justas Dilys, Vytautas Bleizgys, Mindaugas Viliūnas, Vilius Vertelis, Andrius Maneikis, Vakaris Rudokas, Valentina Plaušinaitienė and Nerija Žurauskienė
Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1435; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031435 - 28 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1963
Abstract
A measurement system based on the colossal magnetoresistance CMR-B-scalar sensor was developed for the measurement of short-duration high-amplitude magnetic fields. The system consists of a magnetic field sensor made from thin nanostructured manganite film with minimized memory effect, and a magnetic field recording [...] Read more.
A measurement system based on the colossal magnetoresistance CMR-B-scalar sensor was developed for the measurement of short-duration high-amplitude magnetic fields. The system consists of a magnetic field sensor made from thin nanostructured manganite film with minimized memory effect, and a magnetic field recording module. The memory effect of the La1−xSrx(Mn1−yCoy)zO3 manganite films doped with different amounts of Co and Mn was investigated by measuring the magnetoresistance (MR) and resistance relaxation in pulsed magnetic fields up to 20 T in the temperature range of 80–365 K. It was found that for low-temperature applications, films doped with Co (LSMCO) are preferable due to the minimized magnetic memory effect at these temperatures, compared with LSMO films without Co. For applications at temperatures higher than room temperature, nanostructured manganite LSMO films with increased Mn content above the stoichiometric level have to be used. These films do not exhibit magnetic memory effects and have higher MR values. To avoid parasitic signal due to electromotive forces appearing in the transmission line of the sensor during measurement of short-pulsed magnetic fields, a bipolar-pulsed voltage supply for the sensor was used. For signal recording, a measurement module consisting of a pulsed voltage generator with a frequency up to 12.5 MHz, a 16-bit ADC with a sampling rate of 25 MHz, and a microprocessor was proposed. The circuit of the measurement module was shielded against low- and high-frequency electromagnetic noise, and the recorded signal was transmitted to a personal computer using a fiber optic link. The system was tested using magnetic field generators, generating magnetic fields with pulse durations ranging from 3 to 20 μs. The developed magnetic field measurement system can be used for the measurement of high-pulsed magnetic fields with pulse durations in the order of microseconds in different fields of science and industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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15 pages, 4502 KiB  
Article
High-Fidelity 3D Stray Magnetic Field Mapping of Smartphones to Address Safety Considerations with Active Implantable Electronic Medical Devices
by Nandita Saha, Jason M. Millward, Carl J. J. Herrmann, Faezeh Rahimi, Haopeng Han, Philipp Lacour, Florian Blaschke and Thoralf Niendorf
Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031209 - 20 Jan 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2329
Abstract
Case reports indicate that magnets in smartphones could be a source of electromagnetic interference (EMI) for active implantable medical devices (AIMD), which could lead to device malfunction, compromising patient safety. Recognizing this challenge, we implemented a high-fidelity 3D magnetic field mapping (spatial resolution [...] Read more.
Case reports indicate that magnets in smartphones could be a source of electromagnetic interference (EMI) for active implantable medical devices (AIMD), which could lead to device malfunction, compromising patient safety. Recognizing this challenge, we implemented a high-fidelity 3D magnetic field mapping (spatial resolution 1 mm) setup using a three-axis Hall probe and teslameter, controlled by a robot (COSI Measure). With this setup, we examined the stray magnetic field of an iPhone 13 Pro, iPhone 12, and MagSafe charger to identify sources of magnetic fields for the accurate risk assessment of potential interferences with AIMDs. Our measurements revealed that the stray fields of the annular array of magnets, the wide-angle camera, and the speaker of the smartphones exceeded the 1 mT limit defined by ISO 14117:2019. Our data-driven safety recommendation is that an iPhone 13 Pro should be kept at least 25 mm away from an AIMD to protect it from unwanted EMI interactions. Our study addresses safety concerns due to potential device–device interactions between smartphones and AIMDs and will help to define data-driven safety guidelines. We encourage vendors of electronic consumer products (ECP) to provide information on the magnetic fields of their products and advocate for the inclusion of smartphones in the risk assessment of EMI with AIMDs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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22 pages, 3536 KiB  
Article
Design Methodology for a Magnetic Levitation System Based on a New Multi-Objective Optimization Algorithm
by Igor Reznichenko and Primož Podržaj
Sensors 2023, 23(2), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020979 - 14 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1976
Abstract
Multi-objective (MO) optimization is a developing technique for increasing closed-loop performance and robustness. However, its applications to control engineering mostly concern first or second order approximation models. This article proposes a novel MO algorithm, suitable for the design and control of mechanical systems, [...] Read more.
Multi-objective (MO) optimization is a developing technique for increasing closed-loop performance and robustness. However, its applications to control engineering mostly concern first or second order approximation models. This article proposes a novel MO algorithm, suitable for the design and control of mechanical systems, which does not require any order reduction techniques. The controller parameters are determined directly from a special type of rapid analysis of simulated transient responses. The case study presented in this article consists of a magnetic levitation system. Certain difficulties such as the nonlinearity identification of the magnetic force and duo magnetic field sensor scheme were addressed. To point out the advantages of using the developed approach, the simulations as well as the experiments performed with the help of the created algorithm were compared to those made with common MO algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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18 pages, 7409 KiB  
Article
Coupled Field Analysis of Phenomena in Hybrid Excited Magnetorheological Fluid Brake
by Wojciech Szelag, Cezary Jedryczka, Adam Myszkowski and Rafal M. Wojciechowski
Sensors 2023, 23(1), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010358 - 29 Dec 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1345
Abstract
The paper presents a field model of coupled phenomena occurring in an axisymmetric magnetorheological brake. The coupling between transient fluid dynamics and electromagnetic and thermal fields as well as mechanical equilibrium equations is taken into account. The magnetic field in the studied brake [...] Read more.
The paper presents a field model of coupled phenomena occurring in an axisymmetric magnetorheological brake. The coupling between transient fluid dynamics and electromagnetic and thermal fields as well as mechanical equilibrium equations is taken into account. The magnetic field in the studied brake is of an excited hybrid manner, i.e., by the permanent magnets (PMs) and current Is in the excitation winding. The finite element method and a step-by-step algorithm have been implemented in the proposed field model of coupled phenomena in the considered brake. The nonlinearity of the magnetic circuit and rheological properties of a magnetorheological fluid (MR fluid) as well as the influence of temperature on the properties of materials have been taken into account. To solve equations of the obtained field model, the Newton–Raphson method and the coupled block over-relaxation method have been implemented. The elaborated algorithm has been successfully used in the analysis of the phenomena in the considered magnetorheological brake. The accuracy of the developed model and its usefulness have been verified by a comparative analysis of the results of simulation and laboratory tests carried out for the developed prototype of the studied brake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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14 pages, 10900 KiB  
Article
An Aeromagnetic Compensation Method for Suppressing the Magnetic Interference Generated by Electric Current with Vector Magnetometer
by Chao Zhang, Changping Du, Xiang Peng, Qi Han and Hong Guo
Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6151; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166151 - 17 Aug 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1658
Abstract
In aeromagnetic detection, the magnetic interference conducted by electric currents in onboard electronic (OBE) equipment is gradually being taken seriously with the development of aeromagnetic compensation technology. Here, we propose a compensation method based on the synthetically total magnetic field (STMF) measured by [...] Read more.
In aeromagnetic detection, the magnetic interference conducted by electric currents in onboard electronic (OBE) equipment is gradually being taken seriously with the development of aeromagnetic compensation technology. Here, we propose a compensation method based on the synthetically total magnetic field (STMF) measured by an onboard fluxgate vector magnetometer. In this method, a compensation model is firstly built to suppress the electric current magnetic interference (ECMI) which is jointly measured by a scalar magnetometer and a fluxgate vector magnetometer. The singular spectrum analysis (SSA) method is introduced to accurately extract the characteristic signal of the ECMI from the compensated STMF. In addition, in order to better suppress the geomagnetic gradient interference, the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) model is introduced to modify the existing geomagnetic gradient compensation model. Based on these, a novel compensation model including the traditional aeromagnetic compensation model, modified geomagnetic gradient model, and ECMI compensation model is proposed. The results in the field experiment show that this model has better compensation performance than the TLG model, which is extended from the T–L compensation model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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14 pages, 3496 KiB  
Article
Enhancement of Room-Temperature Low-Field Magnetoresistance in Nanostructured Lanthanum Manganite Films for Magnetic Sensor Applications
by Nerija Zurauskiene, Voitech Stankevic, Skirmantas Kersulis, Milita Vagner, Valentina Plausinaitiene, Jorunas Dobilas, Remigijus Vasiliauskas, Martynas Skapas, Mykola Koliada, Jaroslaw Pietosa and Andrzej Wisniewski
Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4004; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114004 - 25 May 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1764
Abstract
The results of colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) properties of La1-xSrxMnyO3 (LSMO) films grown by the pulsed injection MOCVD technique onto an Al2O3 substrate are presented. The grown films with different Sr (0.05 ≤ x [...] Read more.
The results of colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) properties of La1-xSrxMnyO3 (LSMO) films grown by the pulsed injection MOCVD technique onto an Al2O3 substrate are presented. The grown films with different Sr (0.05 ≤ x ≤ 0.3) and Mn excess (y > 1) concentrations were nanostructured with vertically aligned column-shaped crystallites spread perpendicular to the film plane. It was found that microstructure, resistivity, and magnetoresistive properties of the films strongly depend on the strontium and manganese concentration. All films (including low Sr content) exhibit a metal–insulator transition typical for manganites at a certain temperature, Tm. The Tm vs. Sr content dependence for films with a constant Mn amount has maxima that shift to lower Sr values with the increase in Mn excess in the films. Moreover, the higher the Mn excess concentration in the films, the higher the Tm value obtained. The highest Tm values (270 K) were observed for nanostructured LSMO films with x = 0.17–0.18 and y = 1.15, while the highest low-field magnetoresistance (0.8% at 50 mT) at room temperature (290 K) was achieved for x = 0.3 and y = 1.15. The obtained low-field MR values were relatively high in comparison to those published in the literature results for lanthanum manganite films prepared without additional insulating oxide phases. It can be caused by high Curie temperature (383 K), high saturation magnetization at room temperature (870 emu/cm3), and relatively thin grain boundaries. The obtained results allow to fabricate CMR sensors for low magnetic field measurement at room temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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9 pages, 4836 KiB  
Communication
Phase-Extraction-Based MFL Testing for Subsurface Defect in Ferromagnetic Steel Plate
by Chengjian Ma, Yang Liu and Changyu Shen
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3322; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093322 - 26 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1491
Abstract
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) based on phase extraction for detecting the subsurface defects in ferromagnetic steel plate was investigated. The relationship between electromagnetic field phase and the subsurface defect was analyzed. Low-frequency alternating current (AC) excitation source and high-power magnetizer arrangement with Hall [...] Read more.
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) based on phase extraction for detecting the subsurface defects in ferromagnetic steel plate was investigated. The relationship between electromagnetic field phase and the subsurface defect was analyzed. Low-frequency alternating current (AC) excitation source and high-power magnetizer arrangement with Hall sensor were used to increase the skin depth of the MFL. Experiments results showed that 12 mm deep subsurface defect can be detected by using the phase extraction means, which is about two times higher than that by using the amplitude method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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16 pages, 5281 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Repeatability and Stability of Residual Magnetic Field for Stress Characterization in Elastic and Plastic Ranges of Silicon Steels
by Kun Zeng, Guiyun Tian, Bin Gao, Jia Liu, Yi Liu and Qianhang Liu
Sensors 2022, 22(8), 3052; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22083052 - 15 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1398
Abstract
Deep insights into microstructures and domain wall behaviors in the evaluation of different material statuses under elastic and plastic stress ranges have essential implications for magnetic sensing and nondestructive testing and evaluation (NDT&E). This paper investigates the repeatability and stability of residual magnetic [...] Read more.
Deep insights into microstructures and domain wall behaviors in the evaluation of different material statuses under elastic and plastic stress ranges have essential implications for magnetic sensing and nondestructive testing and evaluation (NDT&E). This paper investigates the repeatability and stability of residual magnetic field (RMF) signals using a magneto-optical Kerr effect microscope for the stress characterization of silicon steel sheets beyond their elastic limit. Real-time domain motion is used for RMF characterization, while both the repeatability under plastic ranges after the cyclic stress rounds and stability during relaxation time are studied in detail. The distinction between elastic and plastic materials is discussed in terms of their spatio-temporal properties for further residual stress measurement since both ranges are mixed. During the relaxation time, the RMF of the plastic material shows a two-stage change with apparent recovery, which is contrasted with the one-stage change in the elastic material. Results show that the grain boundary affects the temporal recovery of the RMF. These findings concerning the spatio-temporal properties of different RMFs in plastic and elastic materials can be applied to the design and development of magnetic NDT&E for (residual) stress measurement and material status estimation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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16 pages, 12458 KiB  
Article
Nanostructured Manganite Films Grown by Pulsed Injection MOCVD: Tuning Low- and High-Field Magnetoresistive Properties for Sensors Applications
by Voitech Stankevic, Nerija Zurauskiene, Skirmantas Kersulis, Valentina Plausinaitiene, Rasuole Lukose, Jonas Klimantavicius, Sonata Tolvaišienė, Martynas Skapas, Algirdas Selskis and Saulius Balevicius
Sensors 2022, 22(2), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020605 - 13 Jan 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1584
Abstract
The results of colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) properties of La0.83Sr0.17Mn1.21O3 (LSMO) films grown by pulsed injection MOCVD technique onto various substrates are presented. The films with thicknesses of 360 nm and 60 nm grown on AT-cut single [...] Read more.
The results of colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) properties of La0.83Sr0.17Mn1.21O3 (LSMO) films grown by pulsed injection MOCVD technique onto various substrates are presented. The films with thicknesses of 360 nm and 60 nm grown on AT-cut single crystal quartz, polycrystalline Al2O3, and amorphous Si/SiO2 substrates were nanostructured with column-shaped crystallites spread perpendicular to the film plane. It was found that morphology, microstructure, and magnetoresistive properties of the films strongly depend on the substrate used. The low-field MR at low temperatures (25 K) showed twice higher values (−31% at 0.7 T) for LSMO/quartz in comparison to films grown on the other substrates (−15%). This value is high in comparison to results published in literature for manganite films prepared without additional insulating oxides. The high-field MR measured up to 20 T at 80 K was also the highest for LSMO/quartz films (−56%) and demonstrated the highest sensitivity S = 0.28 V/T at B = 0.25 T (voltage supply 2.5 V), which is promising for magnetic sensor applications. It was demonstrated that Mn excess Mn/(La + Sr) = 1.21 increases the metal-insulator transition temperature of the films up to 285 K, allowing the increase in the operation temperature of magnetic sensors up to 363 K. These results allow us to fabricate CMR sensors with predetermined parameters in a wide range of magnetic fields and temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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16 pages, 2678 KiB  
Article
Drift-Free Integration in Inductive Magnetic Field Measurements Achieved by Kalman Filtering
by Pasquale Arpaia, Marco Buzio, Vincenzo Di Capua, Sabrina Grassini, Marco Parvis and Mariano Pentella
Sensors 2022, 22(1), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010182 - 28 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1863
Abstract
Sensing coils are inductive sensors commonly used to measure magnetic fields, such as those generated by electromagnets used in many kinds of industrial and scientific applications. Inductive sensors rely on integrating the output voltage at the coil’s terminals in order to obtain flux [...] Read more.
Sensing coils are inductive sensors commonly used to measure magnetic fields, such as those generated by electromagnets used in many kinds of industrial and scientific applications. Inductive sensors rely on integrating the output voltage at the coil’s terminals in order to obtain flux linkage, which may suffer from the magnification of low-frequency noise resulting in a drifting integrated signal. This article presents a method for the cancellation of integrator drift. The method is based on a first-order linear Kalman filter combining the data from the coil and a second sensor. Two case studies are presented. In the first one, the second sensor is a Hall probe, which senses the magnetic field directly. In a second case study, the magnet’s excitation current was used instead to provide a first-order approximation of the field. Experimental tests show that both approaches can reduce the measured field drift by three orders of magnitude. The Hall probe option guarantees, in addition, one order of magnitude better absolute accuracy than by using the excitation current. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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19 pages, 6178 KiB  
Article
Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Transient Analysis for Microstructure Evolution Characterization with Tensile Stress in Elastic and Plastic Status
by Jia Liu, GuiYun Tian, Bin Gao, Kun Zeng, QianHang Liu and Yang Zheng
Sensors 2021, 21(24), 8310; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21248310 - 12 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2418
Abstract
Stress affects the microstructure of the material to influence the durability and service life of the components. However, the previous work of stress measurement lacks quantification of the different variations in time and spatial features of micromagnetic properties affected by stress in elastic [...] Read more.
Stress affects the microstructure of the material to influence the durability and service life of the components. However, the previous work of stress measurement lacks quantification of the different variations in time and spatial features of micromagnetic properties affected by stress in elastic and plastic ranges, as well as the evolution of microstructure. In this paper, microstructure evolution under stress in elastic and plastic ranges is evaluated by magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) transient analysis. Based on a J-A model, the duration and the intensity are the eigenvalues for MBN transient analysis to quantify transient size and number of Barkhausen events under stress. With the observation of domain wall (DW) distribution and microstructure, the correlation between material microstructure and MBN transient eigenvalues is investigated to verify the ability of material status evaluation on the microscopic scale of the method. The results show that the duration and the intensity have different change trends in elastic and plastic ranges. The eigenvalue fusion of the duration and intensity distinguishes the change in microstructure under the stress in elastic and plastic deformation. The appearance of grain boundary (GB) migration and dislocation under the stress in the plastic range makes the duration and the intensity higher on the GB than those inside the grain. Besides, the reproducibility of the proposed method is investigated by evaluating microstructure evolution for silicon steel sheet and Q235 steel sheet. The proposed method investigates the correlation between the microstructure and transient micromagnetic properties, which has the potential for stress evaluation in elastic and plastic ranges for industrial materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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11 pages, 2779 KiB  
Article
Alignment-Free Sensing Module for Absolute and Incremental Lines in Linear Positioning System Based on Tunneling-Magnetoresistance Sensors
by Chia-Chang Lee, Yu-Shen Yen and Chih-Huang Lai
Sensors 2021, 21(12), 4137; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21124137 - 16 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2490
Abstract
An alignment-free sensing module for the positioning system based on tunneling magnetoresistive (TMR) sensors with an absolute-incremental-integrated scale is demonstrated. The sensors of the proposed system for both lines consist of identical layer stacks; therefore, all sensors can be fabricated in identical processes [...] Read more.
An alignment-free sensing module for the positioning system based on tunneling magnetoresistive (TMR) sensors with an absolute-incremental-integrated scale is demonstrated. The sensors of the proposed system for both lines consist of identical layer stacks; therefore, all sensors can be fabricated in identical processes from thin film deposition to device patterning on a single substrate. Consequently, the relative position of the sensors can be predefined at the lithography stage and the alignment error between sensors caused by the manual installation is completely eliminated. Different from the existing sensing scheme for incremental lines, we proposed to utilize the magnetic tunnel junctions with a perpendicular anisotropy reference layer and an in-plane anisotropy sensing layer. The sensors are placed parallel to the scale plane with magnetization of the sensing layer in the plane, which show the capability of polarity detection for the absolute line and reveal sinusoidal output signal for the incremental line. Furthermore, due to the large signal of TMR, the working distance can be further improved compared with conventional sensors. In addition, the cost of the positioning system is expected to be lowered, since all the sensors are fabricated in the same process without extra installation. Our design may pave a new avenue for the positioning system based on a magnetic detection scheme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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20 pages, 9435 KiB  
Article
Time-Response-Histogram-Based Feature of Magnetic Barkhausen Noise for Material Characterization Considering Influences of Grain and Grain Boundary under In Situ Tensile Test
by Jia Liu, Guiyun Tian, Bin Gao, Kun Zeng, Yongbing Xu and Qianhang Liu
Sensors 2021, 21(7), 2350; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072350 - 28 Mar 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2325
Abstract
Stress is the crucial factor of ferromagnetic material failure origin. However, the nondestructive test methods to analyze the ferromagnetic material properties’ inhomogeneity on the microscopic scale with stress have not been obtained so far. In this study, magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) signals on [...] Read more.
Stress is the crucial factor of ferromagnetic material failure origin. However, the nondestructive test methods to analyze the ferromagnetic material properties’ inhomogeneity on the microscopic scale with stress have not been obtained so far. In this study, magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) signals on different silicon steel sheet locations under in situ tensile tests were detected by a high-spatial-resolution magnetic probe. The domain-wall (DW) motion, grain, and grain boundary were detected using a magneto-optical Kerr (MOKE) image. The time characteristic of DW motion and MBN signals on different locations was varied during elastic deformation. Therefore, a time-response histogram is proposed in this work to show different DW motions inside the grain and around the grain boundary under low tensile stress. In order to separate the variation of magnetic properties affected by the grain and grain boundary under low tensile stress corresponding to MBN excitation, time-division was carried out to extract the root-mean-square (RMS), mean, and peak in the optimized time interval. The time-response histogram of MBN evaluated the silicon steel sheet’s inhomogeneous material properties, and provided a theoretical and experimental reference for ferromagnetic material properties under stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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18 pages, 4895 KiB  
Article
The Application of a CMR-B-Scalar Sensor for the Investigation of the Electromagnetic Acceleration of Type II Superconductors
by Vilius Vertelis, Saulius Balevicius, Voitech Stankevic, Nerija Zurauskiene and Markus Schneider
Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041293 - 11 Feb 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2796
Abstract
In this paper, we investigated the behavior of a type II superconducting armature when accelerated by a pulsed magnetic field generated by a single-stage pancake coil. While conducting this investigation, we performed a numerical finite element simulation and an experimental study of the [...] Read more.
In this paper, we investigated the behavior of a type II superconducting armature when accelerated by a pulsed magnetic field generated by a single-stage pancake coil. While conducting this investigation, we performed a numerical finite element simulation and an experimental study of the magnetic field dynamics at the edge of the pancake coil when the payload was a superconducting disc made from YBa2Cu3O7−x, cooled down to 77 K. The magnetic field measurements were performed using a CMR-B-scalar sensor, which was able to measure the absolute magnitude of the magnetic field and was specifically manufactured in order to increase the sensor’s sensitivity up to 500 mT. It was obtained that type II superconducting armatures can outperform normal metals when the launch conditions are tailored to their electromagnetic properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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14 pages, 3645 KiB  
Article
Magnetic Field Measurements during Magnetic Pulse Welding Using CMR-B-Scalar Sensors
by Voitech Stankevic, Joern Lueg-Althoff, Marlon Hahn, A. Erman Tekkaya, Nerija Zurauskiene, Justas Dilys, Jonas Klimantavicius, Skirmantas Kersulis, Ceslovas Simkevicius and Saulius Balevicius
Sensors 2020, 20(20), 5925; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20205925 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2290
Abstract
The possibility of applying CMR-B-scalar sensors made from thin manganite films exhibiting the colossal magnetoresistance effect as a fast-nondestructive method for the evaluation of the quality of the magnetic pulse welding (MPW) process is investigated in this paper. This method based on magnetic [...] Read more.
The possibility of applying CMR-B-scalar sensors made from thin manganite films exhibiting the colossal magnetoresistance effect as a fast-nondestructive method for the evaluation of the quality of the magnetic pulse welding (MPW) process is investigated in this paper. This method based on magnetic field magnitude measurements in the vicinity of the tools and joining parts was tested during the electromagnetic compression and MPW of an aluminum flyer tube with a steel parent. The testing setup used for the investigation allowed the simultaneous measurement of the flyer displacement, its velocity, and the magnitude of the magnetic field close to the flyer. The experimental results and simulations showed that, during the welding of the aluminum tube with the steel parent, the maximum magnetic field in the gap between the field shaper and the flyer is achieved much earlier than the maximum of the current pulse of the coil and that the first half-wave pulse of the magnetic field has two peaks. It was also found that the time instant of the minimum between these peaks depends on the charging energy of the capacitors and is associated with the collision of the flyer with the parent. Together with the first peak maximum and its time-position, this characteristic could be an indication of the welding quality. These results were confirmed by simultaneous measurements of the flyer displacement and velocity, as well as a numerical simulation of the magnetic field dynamics. The relationship between the peculiarities of the magnetic field pulse and the quality of the welding process is discussed. It was demonstrated that the proposed method of magnetic field measurement during magnetic pulse welding in combination with subsequent peel testing could be used as a nondestructive method for the monitoring of the quality of the welding process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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39 pages, 14587 KiB  
Review
Engineering of Advanced Materials for High Magnetic Field Sensing: A Review
by Nerija Žurauskienė
Sensors 2023, 23(6), 2939; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23062939 - 08 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2609
Abstract
Advanced scientific and industrial equipment requires magnetic field sensors with decreased dimensions while keeping high sensitivity in a wide range of magnetic fields and temperatures. However, there is a lack of commercial sensors for measurements of high magnetic fields, from ∼1 T up [...] Read more.
Advanced scientific and industrial equipment requires magnetic field sensors with decreased dimensions while keeping high sensitivity in a wide range of magnetic fields and temperatures. However, there is a lack of commercial sensors for measurements of high magnetic fields, from ∼1 T up to megagauss. Therefore, the search for advanced materials and the engineering of nanostructures exhibiting extraordinary properties or new phenomena for high magnetic field sensing applications is of great importance. The main focus of this review is the investigation of thin films, nanostructures and two-dimensional (2D) materials exhibiting non-saturating magnetoresistance up to high magnetic fields. Results of the review showed how tuning of the nanostructure and chemical composition of thin polycrystalline ferromagnetic oxide films (manganites) can result in a remarkable colossal magnetoresistance up to megagauss. Moreover, by introducing some structural disorder in different classes of materials, such as non-stoichiometric silver chalcogenides, narrow band gap semiconductors, and 2D materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides, the possibility to increase the linear magnetoresistive response range up to very strong magnetic fields (50 T and more) and over a large range of temperatures was demonstrated. Approaches for the tailoring of the magnetoresistive properties of these materials and nanostructures for high magnetic field sensor applications were discussed and future perspectives were outlined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensors and Systems for Scientific and Industrial Applications)
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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Engineering of Advanced Materials for Sensing of High Magnetic Fields: A Review

Nerija Zurauskiene1,2

1Department of Functional Materials and Electronics, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania

2Faculty of Electronics, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, LT-03227 Vilnius, Lithuania

The commercialized magnetic field sensors are becoming one of the mostly important components in consumer, automotive, industrial and other areas of application. The decreased sensor’s dimensions keeping high sensitivity in a wide range of magnetic fields and temperatures for measurement of local magnetic fields or their spatial distribution are required in advanced scientific and industrial equipment. However, there is a lack of commercial sensors for measurements of high magnetic fields. Therefore, the search of advanced materials and engineering of their nanostructures exhibiting extraordinary properties or new phenomena for high magnetic field sensing applications is of great importance.

In this review, the main focus will be made on the investigations of thin films, nanostructures and two-dimensional (2D) materials exhibiting non-saturating magnetoresistance up to high magnetic fields. It will be demonstrated, how tuning of the nanostructure and chemical composition of thin ferromagnetic oxide films (such as manganites) could result in a remarkable colossal magnetoresistance up to megagauss. Such films were used for the development of high pulsed magnetic field sensors capable to measure the fields in small volumes independently of magnetic field direction. The influence of macroscopic disorder on the linear magnetoresistive response over a large range of magnetic fields was demonstrated in several inhomogeneous conductors, such as non-stoichiometric silver chalcogenides. Also, 2D graphene and other semimetals such as bismuth, or narrow band gap semiconductors with very low effective mass exhibit linear magnetoresistance up to very high magnetic fields. The possibilities to tailor the magnetoresistive properties of such materials and nanostructures for high magnetic field sensors applications at various ranges of temperatures will be discussed and future perspectives will be outlined.

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