Research

15 pages, 4514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Pilot Study of the Impact of Microwave Ablation on the Dielectric Properties of Breast Tissue

by Luz Maria Neira, R. Owen Mays, James F. Sawicki, Amanda Schulman, Josephine Harter, Lee G. Wilke, Nader Behdad, Barry D. Van Veen and Susan C. Hagness

Sensors 2020, 20(19), 5698; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20195698 - 06 Oct 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

Percutaneous microwave ablation (MWA) is a promising technology for patients with breast cancer, as it may help treat individuals who have less aggressive cancers or do not respond to targeted therapies in the neoadjuvant or pre-surgical setting. In this study, we investigate changes [...] Read more.

Percutaneous microwave ablation (MWA) is a promising technology for patients with breast cancer, as it may help treat individuals who have less aggressive cancers or do not respond to targeted therapies in the neoadjuvant or pre-surgical setting. In this study, we investigate changes to the microwave dielectric properties of breast tissue that are induced by MWA. While similar changes have been characterized for relatively homogeneous tissues, such as liver, those prior results are not directly translatable to breast tissue because of the extreme tissue heterogeneity present in the breast. This study was motivated, in part by the expectation that the changes in the dielectric properties of the microwave antenna’s operation environment will be impacted by tissue composition of the ablation target, which includes not only the tumor, but also its margins. Accordingly, this target comprises a heterogeneous mix of malignant, healthy glandular, and adipose tissue. Therefore, knowledge of MWA impact on breast dielectric properties is essential for the successful development of MWA systems for breast cancer. We performed ablations in 14 human ex-vivo prophylactic mastectomy specimens from surgeries that were conducted at the UW Hospital and monitored the temperature in the vicinity of the MWA antenna during ablation. After ablation we measured the dielectric properties of the tissue and analyzed the tissue samples to determine both the tissue composition and the extent of damage due to the ablation. We observed that MWA induced cell damage across all tissue compositions, and found that the microwave frequency-dependent relative permittivity and conductivity of damaged tissue are lower than those of healthy tissue, especially for tissue with high fibroglandular content. The results provide information for future developments on breast MWA systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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13 pages, 1189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Open-Ended Coaxial Probe Sensitivity to Heterogeneous Media

by Christopher L. Brace and Sevde Etoz

Sensors 2020, 20(18), 5372; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185372 - 19 Sep 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2546

Abstract

Open-ended coaxial probe spectroscopy is commonly used to determine the dielectric permittivity of biological tissues. However, heterogeneities in the probe sensing region can limit measurement precision and reproducibility. This study presents an analysis of the coaxial probe sensing region to elucidate the effects [...] Read more.

Open-ended coaxial probe spectroscopy is commonly used to determine the dielectric permittivity of biological tissues. However, heterogeneities in the probe sensing region can limit measurement precision and reproducibility. This study presents an analysis of the coaxial probe sensing region to elucidate the effects of heterogeneities on measured permittivity. Coaxial probe spectroscopy at 0.5–20 GHz was numerically simulated while a homogenous background was perturbed with a small inclusion of contrasting permittivity. Shifts in the measured effective permittivity provided a three-dimensional assessment of the probe sensitivity field. Sensitivity was well-approximated by the square of the electric field for each analyzed probe. Smaller probes were more sensitive to heterogeneities throughout their sensing region, but were less sensitive to spectral effects compared to larger probes. The probe sensing diameter was less than 0.5 mm in all directions by multiple metrics. Therefore, small heterogeneities may substantially impact permittivity measurement in biological tissues if located near the probe-tissue interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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20 pages, 7136 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an Anthropomorphic Phantom of the Axillary Region for Microwave Imaging Assessment

by Matteo Savazzi, Soroush Abedi, Niko Ištuk, Nadine Joachimowicz, Hélène Roussel, Emily Porter, Martin O’Halloran, Jorge R. Costa, Carlos A. Fernandes, João M. Felício and Raquel C. Conceição

Sensors 2020, 20(17), 4968; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20174968 - 02 Sep 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2878

Abstract

We produced an anatomically and dielectrically realistic phantom of the axillary region to enable the experimental assessment of Axillary Lymph Node (ALN) imaging using microwave imaging technology. We segmented a thoracic Computed Tomography (CT) scan and created a computer-aided designed file containing the [...] Read more.

We produced an anatomically and dielectrically realistic phantom of the axillary region to enable the experimental assessment of Axillary Lymph Node (ALN) imaging using microwave imaging technology. We segmented a thoracic Computed Tomography (CT) scan and created a computer-aided designed file containing the anatomical configuration of the axillary region. The phantom comprises five 3D-printed parts representing the main tissues of interest of the axillary region for the purpose of microwave imaging: fat, muscle, bone, ALNs, and lung. The phantom allows the experimental assessment of multiple anatomical configurations, by including ALNs of different size, shape, and number in several locations. Except for the bone mimicking organ, which is made of solid conductive polymer, we 3D-printed cavities to represent the fat, muscle, ALN, and lung and filled them with appropriate tissue-mimicking liquids. Existing studies about complex permittivity of ALNs have reported limitations. To address these, we measured the complex permittivity of both human and animal lymph nodes using the standard open-ended coaxial-probe technique, over the 0.5 GHz–8.5 GHz frequency band, thus extending current knowledge on dielectric properties of ALNs. Lastly, we numerically evaluated the effect of the polymer which constitutes the cavities of the phantom and compared it to the realistic axillary region. The results showed a maximum difference of 7 dB at 4 GHz in the electric field magnitude coupled to the tissues and a maximum of 10 dB difference in the ALN response. Our results showed that the phantom is a good representation of the axillary region and a viable tool for pre-clinical assessment of microwave imaging technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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18 pages, 2726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Artificial Neural Networks for Accurate Determination of the Complex Permittivity of Biological Tissue

by Julian Bonello, Andrea Demarco, Iman Farhat, Lourdes Farrugia and Charles V. Sammut

Sensors 2020, 20(16), 4640; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164640 - 18 Aug 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3087

Abstract

Medical devices making use of radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) fields have been studied as alternatives to existing diagnostic and therapeutic modalities since they offer several advantages. However, the lack of accurate knowledge of the complex permittivity of different biological tissues continues [...] Read more.

Medical devices making use of radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) fields have been studied as alternatives to existing diagnostic and therapeutic modalities since they offer several advantages. However, the lack of accurate knowledge of the complex permittivity of different biological tissues continues to hinder progress in of these technologies. The most convenient and popular measurement method used to determine the complex permittivity of biological tissues is the open-ended coaxial line, in combination with a vector network analyser (VNA) to measure the reflection coefficient (S11) which is then converted to the corresponding tissue permittivity using either full-wave analysis or through the use of equivalent circuit models. This paper proposes an innovative method of using artificial neural networks (ANN) to convert measured S11 to tissue permittivity, circumventing the requirement of extending the VNA measurement plane to the coaxial line open end. The conventional three-step calibration technique used with coaxial open-ended probes lacks repeatability, unless applied with extreme care by experienced persons, and is not adaptable to alternative sensor antenna configurations necessitated by many potential diagnostic and monitoring applications. The method being proposed does not require calibration at the tip of the probe, thus simplifying the measurement procedure while allowing arbitrary sensor design, and was experimentally validated using S11 measurements and the corresponding complex permittivity of 60 standard liquid and 42 porcine tissue samples. Following ANN training, validation and testing, we obtained a prediction accuracy of 5% for the complex permittivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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15 pages, 3580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Impedance Detection of Intra-Articular Space in a Porcine Model Using a Monopolar Injection Needle

by Muhammad Aitzaz Abbasi, Hwijung Kim, Somasekhar R. Chinnadayyala, Ki Deok Park and Sungbo Cho

Sensors 2020, 20(16), 4625; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164625 - 17 Aug 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2776

Abstract

Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis can be treated through specific drug injection into the intra-articular space. Several failures during drug injection attempts with conventional fluoroscopy and ultrasonography in a small area of the intra-articular space have been reported. In this work we present an [...] Read more.

Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis can be treated through specific drug injection into the intra-articular space. Several failures during drug injection attempts with conventional fluoroscopy and ultrasonography in a small area of the intra-articular space have been reported. In this work we present an innovative impedance measurement-based method/algorithm for needle tip positioning to enhance image-guided intra-articular vaccination treatment. A novel algorithm for detecting the intra-articular space in the elbow and knee joints of a live porcine model is reported. An impedance measurement system was developed for biological tissue measurement. The electrical impedance in the intra-articular space was monitored and the needle tip was examined by ultrasonography. The contrast dye was vaccinated and checked using fluoroscopy to confirm that the dye was properly inoculated in the cavity. The electrical impedance was estimated for various needle inclusion profundity levels in saline solution, which were broadly used to evaluate the proposed device for in vivo examinations. Good efficiency was observed in the impedance-based measurements using a monopolar injection needle for intra-articular therapy. To enhance the needle tip positioning for intra-articular therapy, the intended impedance measurement device with a monopolar injection needle can be used as a complement to existing modalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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9 pages, 1339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Characterization of Phantoms Used for Quality Assurance of Deep Hyperthermia Systems

by Laura Farina, Kemal Sumser, Gerard van Rhoon and Sergio Curto

Sensors 2020, 20(16), 4549; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164549 - 13 Aug 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2990

Abstract

Tissue mimicking phantoms are frequently used in hyperthermia applications for device and protocol optimization. Unfortunately, a commonly experienced limitation is that their precise thermal properties are not available. Therefore, in this study, the thermal properties of three currently used QA phantoms for deep [...] Read more.

Tissue mimicking phantoms are frequently used in hyperthermia applications for device and protocol optimization. Unfortunately, a commonly experienced limitation is that their precise thermal properties are not available. Therefore, in this study, the thermal properties of three currently used QA phantoms for deep hyperthermia are measured with an “off-shelf” commercial thermal property analyzer. We have measured averaged values of thermal conductivity (k = 0.59 ± 0.07 Wm⁻¹K⁻¹), volumetric heat capacity (C = 3.85 ± 0.45 MJm⁻³K⁻¹) and thermal diffusivity (D = 0.16 ± 0.02 mm²s⁻¹). These values are comparable with reported values of internal organs, such as liver, kidney and muscle. In addition, a sensitivity study of the performance of the commercial sensor is conducted. To ensure correct thermal measurements, the sample under test should entirely cover the length of the sensor, and a minimum of 4 mm of material parallel to the sensor in all directions should be guaranteed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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15 pages, 6588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploiting Tissue Dielectric Properties to Shape Microwave Thermal Ablation Zones

by Anna Bottiglieri, Giuseppe Ruvio, Martin O’Halloran and Laura Farina

Sensors 2020, 20(14), 3960; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20143960 - 16 Jul 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2756

Abstract

The dielectric characterization of tissue targets of microwave thermal ablation (MTA) have improved the efficacy and pre-procedural planning of treatment. In some clinical scenarios, the tissue target lies at the interface with an external layer of fat. The aim of this work is [...] Read more.

The dielectric characterization of tissue targets of microwave thermal ablation (MTA) have improved the efficacy and pre-procedural planning of treatment. In some clinical scenarios, the tissue target lies at the interface with an external layer of fat. The aim of this work is to investigate the influence of the dielectric contrast between fat and target tissue on the shape and size of the ablation zone. A 2.45 GHz monopole antenna is placed parallel to an interface modelled by fat and a tissue characterized by higher dielectric properties and powered at 30 and 60 W for 60 s. The performances of MTA are numerically investigated considering different interface scenarios (i.e., different widths of fat layer, shifts in the antenna alignment) and a homogeneous reference scenario. Experiments (N = 10) are conducted on ex vivo porcine tissue to validate the numerical results. Asymmetric heating patterns are obtained in the interface scenario, the ablation zone in the target tissue is two-fold to ten-fold the size of the zone in the adipose tissue, and up to four times larger than the homogenous scenario. The adipose tissue reflects the electromagnetic energy into the adjacent tissue target, reducing the heating in the opposite direction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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19 pages, 3798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Sensitivity Analysis for Dielectric Characterization of Biological Samples by Open-Ended Probe Technique

by Marta Cavagnaro and Giuseppe Ruvio

Sensors 2020, 20(13), 3756; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20133756 - 04 Jul 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2327

Abstract

Dielectric characterization of biological tissues has become a fundamental aspect of the design of medical treatments based on electromagnetic energy delivery and their pre-treatment planning. Among several measuring techniques proposed in the literature, broadband and minimally-invasive open-ended probe measurements are best-suited for biological [...] Read more.

Dielectric characterization of biological tissues has become a fundamental aspect of the design of medical treatments based on electromagnetic energy delivery and their pre-treatment planning. Among several measuring techniques proposed in the literature, broadband and minimally-invasive open-ended probe measurements are best-suited for biological tissues. However, several challenges related to measurement accuracy arise when dealing with biological tissues in both ex vivo and in vivo scenarios such as very constrained set-ups in terms of limited sample size and probe positioning. By means of the Finite Integration Technique in the CST Studio Suite^® software, the numerical accuracy of the reconstruction of the complex permittivity of a high water-content tissue such as liver and a low water-content tissue such as fat is evaluated for different sample dimensions, different location of the probe, and considering the influence of the background environment. It is found that for high water-content tissues, the insertion depth of the probe into the sample is the most critical parameter on the accuracy of the reconstruction. Whereas when low water-content tissues are measured, the probe could be simply placed in contact with the surface of the sample but a deeper and wider sample is required to mitigate biasing effects from the background environment. The numerical analysis proves to be a valid tool to assess the suitability of a measurement set-up for a target accuracy threshold. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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14 pages, 3251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges of Post-measurement Histology for the Dielectric Characterisation of Heterogeneous Biological Tissues

by Alessandra La Gioia, Martin O’Halloran and Emily Porter

Sensors 2020, 20(11), 3290; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113290 - 09 Jun 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2715

Abstract

The dielectric properties of biological tissues are typically measured using the open-ended coaxial probe technique, which is based on the assumption that the tissue sample is homogeneous. Therefore, for heterogeneous tissue samples, additional post-measurement sample processing is conducted. Specifically, post-measurement histological analysis may [...] Read more.

The dielectric properties of biological tissues are typically measured using the open-ended coaxial probe technique, which is based on the assumption that the tissue sample is homogeneous. Therefore, for heterogeneous tissue samples, additional post-measurement sample processing is conducted. Specifically, post-measurement histological analysis may be performed in order to associate the measured dielectric properties with the tissue types present in a heterogeneous sample. Accurate post-measurement histological analysis enables identification of the constituent tissue types that contributed to the measured dielectric properties, and their relative distributions. There is no standard protocol for conducting post-measurement histological analysis, which leads to high numbers of excluded tissue samples and inconsistencies in the resulting reported data for heterogeneous tissues. To this extent, this study examines the post-measurement histological process and the challenges in associating the acquired dielectric properties with the different tissue types present in heterogeneous samples. The results demonstrate that the histological process inevitably alters the morphology of samples, thus introducing errors in the interpretation of the dielectric properties acquired from heterogeneous biological samples. Notably, sample size was seen to shrink by up to 90% through the histological process, meaning that sensing volume determined from fresh tissues is not directly applicable to histology images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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12 pages, 3019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrical Modeling of the Growth and Differentiation of Skeletal Myoblasts Cell Cultures for Tissue Engineering

by Alberto Olmo, Yaiza Yuste, Juan Alfonso Serrano, Andres Maldonado-Jacobi, Pablo Pérez, Gloria Huertas, Sheila Pereira, Alberto Yufera and Fernando de la Portilla

Sensors 2020, 20(11), 3152; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113152 - 02 Jun 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2941

Abstract

In tissue engineering, of utmost importance is the control of tissue formation, in order to form tissue constructs of clinical relevance. In this work, we present the use of an impedance spectroscopy technique for the real-time measurement of the dielectric properties of skeletal [...] Read more.

In tissue engineering, of utmost importance is the control of tissue formation, in order to form tissue constructs of clinical relevance. In this work, we present the use of an impedance spectroscopy technique for the real-time measurement of the dielectric properties of skeletal myoblast cell cultures. The processes involved in the growth and differentiation of these cell cultures in skeletal muscle are studied. A circuit based on the oscillation-based test technique was used, avoiding the use of high-performance circuitry or external input signals. The effect of electrical pulse stimulation applied to cell cultures was also studied. The technique proved useful for monitoring in real-time the processes of cell growth and estimating the fill factor of muscular stem cells. Impedance spectroscopy was also useful to study the real-time monitoring of cell differentiation, obtaining different oscillation amplitude levels for differentiated and undifferentiated cell cultures. Finally, an electrical model was implemented to better understand the physical properties of the cell culture and control the tissue formation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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14 pages, 556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterisation of Ex Vivo Liver Thermal Properties for Electromagnetic-Based Hyperthermic Therapies

by Nuno P. Silva, Anna Bottiglieri, Raquel C. Conceição, Martin O’Halloran and Laura Farina

Sensors 2020, 20(10), 3004; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20103004 - 25 May 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3383

Abstract

Electromagnetic-based hyperthermic therapies induce a controlled increase of temperature in a specific tissue target in order to increase the tissue perfusion or metabolism, or even to induce cell necrosis. These therapies require accurate knowledge of dielectric and thermal properties to optimise treatment plans. [...] Read more.

Electromagnetic-based hyperthermic therapies induce a controlled increase of temperature in a specific tissue target in order to increase the tissue perfusion or metabolism, or even to induce cell necrosis. These therapies require accurate knowledge of dielectric and thermal properties to optimise treatment plans. While dielectric properties have been well investigated, only a few studies have been conducted with the aim of understanding the changes of thermal properties as a function of temperature; i.e., thermal conductivity, volumetric heat capacity and thermal diffusivity. In this study, we experimentally investigate the thermal properties of ex vivo ovine liver in the hyperthermic temperature range, from 25 °C to 97 °C. A significant increase in thermal properties is observed only above 90 °C. An analytical model is developed to model the thermal properties as a function of temperature. Thermal properties are also investigated during the natural cooling of the heated tissue. A reversible phenomenon of the thermal properties is observed; during the cooling, thermal properties followed the same behaviour observed in the heating process. Additionally, tissue density and water content are evaluated at different temperatures. Density does not change with temperature; mass and volume losses change proportionally due to water vaporisation. A 30% water loss was observed above 90 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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12 pages, 2936 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Potential of Adjusting Water Bolus Liquid Properties for Economic and Precise MR Thermometry Guided Radiofrequency Hyperthermia

by Kemal Sumser, Gennaro G. Bellizzi, Gerard C. van Rhoon and Margarethus M. Paulides

Sensors 2020, 20(10), 2946; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20102946 - 22 May 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2002

Abstract

The potential of MR thermometry (MRT) fostered the development of MRI compatible radiofrequency (RF) hyperthermia devices. Such device integration creates major technological challenges and a crucial point for image quality is the water bolus (WB). The WB is located between the patient body [...] Read more.

The potential of MR thermometry (MRT) fostered the development of MRI compatible radiofrequency (RF) hyperthermia devices. Such device integration creates major technological challenges and a crucial point for image quality is the water bolus (WB). The WB is located between the patient body and external sources to both couple electromagnetic energy and to cool the patient skin. However, the WB causes MRT errors and unnecessarily large field of view. In this work, we studied making the WB MRI transparent by an optimal concentration of compounds capable of modifying T

_{2}

* relaxation without an impact on the efficiency of RF heating. Three different T

_{2}

* reducing compounds were investigated, namely CuSO

_{4}

, MnCl

_{2}

, and Fe

_{3}

O

_{4}

. First, electromagnetic properties and T

_{2}

* relaxation rates at 1.5 T were measured. Next, through multi-physics simulations, the predicted effect on the RF-power deposition pattern was evaluated and MRT precision was experimentally assessed. Our results identified 5 mM Fe

_{3}

O

_{4}

solution as optimal since it does not alter the RF-power level needed and improved MRT precision from 0.39

^{°}

C to 0.09

^{°}

C. MnCl

_{2}

showed a similar MRT improvement, but caused unacceptable RF-power losses. We conclude that adding Fe

_{3}

O

_{4}

has significant potential to improve RF hyperthermia treatment monitoring under MR guidance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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21 pages, 4789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multimodal Breast Phantoms for Microwave, Ultrasound, Mammography, Magnetic Resonance and Computed Tomography Imaging

by Giuseppe Ruvio, Raffaele Solimene, Antonio Cuccaro, Gaia Fiaschetti, Andrew J. Fagan, Sean Cournane, Jennie Cooke, Max J. Ammann, Jorge Tobon and Jacinta E. Browne

Sensors 2020, 20(8), 2400; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20082400 - 23 Apr 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5491

Abstract

The aim of this work was to develop multimodal anthropomorphic breast phantoms suitable for evaluating the imaging performance of a recently-introduced Microwave Imaging (MWI) technique in comparison to the established diagnostic imaging modalities of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Ultrasound (US), mammography and Computed [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to develop multimodal anthropomorphic breast phantoms suitable for evaluating the imaging performance of a recently-introduced Microwave Imaging (MWI) technique in comparison to the established diagnostic imaging modalities of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Ultrasound (US), mammography and Computed Tomography (CT). MWI is an emerging technique with significant potential to supplement established imaging techniques to improve diagnostic confidence for breast cancer detection. To date, numerical simulations have been used to assess the different MWI scanning and image reconstruction algorithms in current use, while only a few clinical trials have been conducted. To bridge the gap between the numerical simulation environment and a more realistic diagnostic scenario, anthropomorphic phantoms which mimic breast tissues in terms of their heterogeneity, anatomy, morphology, and mechanical and dielectric characteristics, may be used. Key in this regard is achieving realism in the imaging appearance of the different healthy and pathologic tissue types for each of the modalities, taking into consideration the differing imaging and contrast mechanisms for each modality. Suitable phantoms can thus be used by radiologists to correlate image findings between the emerging MWI technique and the more familiar images generated by the conventional modalities. Two phantoms were developed in this study, representing difficult-to-image and easy-to-image patients: the former contained a complex boundary between the mammary fat and fibroglandular tissues, extracted from real patient MRI datasets, while the latter contained a simpler and less morphologically accurate interface. Both phantoms were otherwise identical, with tissue-mimicking materials (TMMs) developed to mimic skin, subcutaneous fat, fibroglandular tissue, tumor and pectoral muscle. The phantoms’ construction used non-toxic materials, and they were inexpensive and relatively easy to manufacture. Both phantoms were scanned using conventional modalities (MRI, US, mammography and CT) and a recently introduced MWI radar detection procedure called in-coherent Multiple Signal Classification (I-MUSIC). Clinically realistic artifact-free images of the anthropomorphic breast phantoms were obtained using the conventional imaging techniques as well as the emerging technique of MWI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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12 pages, 1267 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vivo Dielectric Properties of Healthy and Benign Rat Mammary Tissues from 500 MHz to 18 GHz

by Tuba Yilmaz and Fatma Ates Alkan

Sensors 2020, 20(8), 2214; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20082214 - 14 Apr 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3528

Abstract

This work investigates the in vivo dielectric properties of healthy and benign rat mammary tissues in an attempt to expand the dielectric property knowledge of animal models. The outcomes of this study can enable testing of microwave medical technologies on animal models and [...] Read more.

This work investigates the in vivo dielectric properties of healthy and benign rat mammary tissues in an attempt to expand the dielectric property knowledge of animal models. The outcomes of this study can enable testing of microwave medical technologies on animal models and interpretation of tissue alteration-dependent in vivo dielectric properties of mammary tissues. Towards this end, in vivo dielectric properties of healthy rat mammary tissues and chemically induced benign rat mammary tumors including low-grade adenosis, sclerosing adenosis, and adenosis were collected with open-ended coaxial probes from 500 MHz to 18 GHz. The in vivo measurements revealed that the dielectric properties of benign rat mammary tumors are higher than the healthy rat mammary tissues by 9.3% to 35.5% and 19.6% to 48.7% for relative permittivity and conductivity, respectively. Furthermore, to our surprise, we found that the grade of the benign tissue affects the dielectric properties for this study. Finally, a comparison with ex vivo healthy human mammary tissue dielectric properties revealed that the healthy rat mammary tissues best replicate the dielectric properties of healthy medium density human samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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13 pages, 1091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Open-Ended Coaxial Probe-to-Tissue Contact Pressure on Dielectric Measurements

by Gertjan Maenhout, Tomislav Markovic, Ilja Ocket and Bart Nauwelaers

Sensors 2020, 20(7), 2060; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20072060 - 06 Apr 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3652

Abstract

Open-ended coaxial probes are widely used to gather dielectric properties of biological tissues. Due to the lack of an agreed data acquisition protocol, several environmental conditions can cause inaccuracies when comparing dielectric data. In this work, the effect of a different measurement probe-to-tissue [...] Read more.

Open-ended coaxial probes are widely used to gather dielectric properties of biological tissues. Due to the lack of an agreed data acquisition protocol, several environmental conditions can cause inaccuracies when comparing dielectric data. In this work, the effect of a different measurement probe-to-tissue contact pressure was monitored in the frequency range from 0.5 to 20 GHz. Therefore, we constructed a controlled lifting platform with an integrated pressure sensor to exert a constant pressure on the tissue sample during the dielectric measurement. In the pressure range from 7.74 kPa to 77.4 kPa, we observed a linear correlation of

- 0.31 \pm 0.09

% and

- 0.32 \pm 0.14

% per kPa for, respectively, the relative real and imaginary complex permittivity. These values are statistically significant compared with the reported measurement uncertainty. Following the literature in different biology-related disciplines regarding pressure-induced variability in measurements, we hypothesize that these changes originate from squeezing out the interstitial and extracellular fluid. This process locally increases the concentration of membranes, cellular organelles, and proteins in the sensed volume. Finally, we suggest moving towards a standardized probe-to-tissue contact pressure, since the literature has already demonstrated that reprobing at the same pressure can produce repeatable data within a 1% uncertainty interval. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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12 pages, 1744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a 3D Anthropomorphic Phantom Generator for Microwave Imaging Applications of the Head and Neck Region

by Ana Catarina Pelicano and Raquel C. Conceição

Sensors 2020, 20(7), 2029; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20072029 - 04 Apr 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2654

Abstract

The development of 3D anthropomorphic head and neck phantoms is of crucial and timely importance to explore novel imaging techniques, such as radar-based MicroWave Imaging (MWI), which have the potential to accurately diagnose Cervical Lymph Nodes (CLNs) in a neoadjuvant and non-invasive manner. [...] Read more.

The development of 3D anthropomorphic head and neck phantoms is of crucial and timely importance to explore novel imaging techniques, such as radar-based MicroWave Imaging (MWI), which have the potential to accurately diagnose Cervical Lymph Nodes (CLNs) in a neoadjuvant and non-invasive manner. We are motivated by a significant diagnostic blind-spot regarding mass screening of LNs in the case of head and neck cancer. The timely detection and selective removal of metastatic CLNs will prevent tumor cells from entering the lymphatic and blood systems and metastasizing to other body regions. The present paper describes the developed phantom generator which allows the anthropomorphic modelling of the main biological tissues of the cervical region, including CLNs, as well as their dielectric properties, for a frequency range from 1 to 10 GHz, based on Magnetic Resonance images. The resulting phantoms of varying complexity are well-suited to contribute to all stages of the development of a radar-based MWI device capable of detecting CLNs. Simpler models are essential since complexity could hinder the initial development stages of MWI devices. Besides, the diversity of anthropomorphic phantoms resulting from the developed phantom generator can be explored in other scientific contexts and may be useful to other medical imaging modalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurements Techniques of Biological Tissues Dielectric Properties, Updated Data and Current Applications)

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