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Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomedical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2024 | Viewed by 19038

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Yih-Kuen Jan

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Guest Editor

Rehabilitation Engineering Lab, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
Interests: biomechanics; rehabilitation engineering; computational modeling; exercise physiology; signal analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Chi-Wen Lung

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Guest Editor

Department of Creative Product Design, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
Interests: sensor and system development; machanie learning; biomechanics

Dr. Ben-Yi Liau

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Guest Editor

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hungkuang University, Taichung, Taiwan
Interests: biomedical signal processing; biomechanics

Dr. Manuel E. Hernandez

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Guest Editor

Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
Interests: mobility; balance; gait; aging; neurological disorders; neuroimaging; biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sport biomechanics is a subfield of biomechanics that studies mechanics to improve performance and reduce injury during exercise and physical activities in abled-bodied people and people with disabilities. Traditionally, sport biomechanics research has been conducted in laboratory settings that limits the generalization of research findings to real-life field competitions. Recent advancements on sensors and wearable technologies have provided new opportunities to examine the field performance and provide real-time feedback for athletes. These sensors and wearable technologies include physiological (e.g., heart rate), neurological (e.g., brain waves), biochemical (e.g., metabolites) and biomechanical (e.g., force) sensors.

Although these sensors and wearable technologies have demonstrated the promise to improve sport performance and reduce injury in sport biomechanics, these novel sensors have not been widely applied to study various sport activities (e.g., speed skating, football and marathon). Many novel wearable sensors for assessing cardiovascular and metabolic process have not been used to benefit athletes. Furthermore, data collected from these wearable sensors have not been fully analyzed. This aim of this Special Issue is to highlight these novel sensors and wearable technologies and their applications in sport biomechanics as well as machine learning-based analyses of real-time, continuous wearable sensor data.

Dr. Yih-Kuen Jan
Dr. Chi-Wen Lung
Dr. Ben-Yi Liau
Dr. Manuel E. Hernandez
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

novel sensors for monitoring the musculoskeletal system during exercise
wearable sensors for impact and shock forces and real-time feedback
wearable sensors for early detection of injury
novel sensor data processing and synthesis
computational modeling of sensor data
machine learning for classifying sensor data
methods to improve long-term usage of wearable sensors

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

10 pages, 925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Hand Tremors on the Shooting Performance of Air Pistol Shooters with Different Skill Levels

by Yu Liu, Nijia Hu, Mengzi Sun, Feng Qu and Xinglong Zhou

Sensors 2024, 24(8), 2438; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24082438 - 11 Apr 2024

Viewed by 338

Abstract

Physiologic hand tremors are a critical factor affecting the aim of air pistol shooters. However, the extent of the effect of hand tremors on shooting performance is unclear. In this study, we aim to explore the relationship between hand tremors and shooting performance scores as well as investigate potential links between muscle activation and hand tremors. In this study, 17 male air pistol shooters from China’s national team and the Air Pistol Sports Center were divided into two groups: the elite group and the sub-elite group. Each participant completed 40 shots during the experiment, with shooters’ hand tremors recorded using three-axis digital accelerometers affixed to their right hands. Muscle activation was recorded using surface electromyography on the right anterior deltoid, posterior deltoid, biceps brachii (short head), triceps brachii (long head), flexor carpi radialis, and extensor carpi radialis. Our analysis revealed weak correlations between shooting scores and hand tremor amplitude in multiple directions (middle-lateral, ML: r² = −0.22, p < 0.001; vertical, VT: r² = −0.25, p < 0.001), as well as between shooting scores and hand tremor complexity (ML: r² = −0.26, p < 0.001; VT: r² = −0.28, p < 0.001), across all participants. Notably, weak correlations between shooting scores and hand tremor amplitude (ML: r² = −0.27, p < 0.001; VT: r² = −0.33, p < 0.001) and complexity (ML: r² = −0.31, p < 0.001) were observed in the elite group but not in the sub-elite group. Moderate correlation were found between the biceps brachii (short head) RMS and hand tremor amplitude in the VT and ML directions (ML: r² = 0.49, p = 0.010; VT: r² = 0.44, p = 0.025) in all shooters, with a moderate correlation in the ML direction in elite shooters (ML: r² = 0.49, p = 0.034). Our results suggest that hand tremors in air pistol shooters are associated with the skill of the shooters, and muscle activation of the biceps brachii (long head) might be a factor affecting hand tremors. By balancing the agonist and antagonist muscles of the shoulder joint, shooters might potentially reduce hand tremors and improve their shooting scores. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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21 pages, 46998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Methodology for Low-Cost 3D Underwater Motion Capture: Application to the Biomechanics of Horse Swimming

by Chloé Giraudet, Claire Moiroud, Audrey Beaumont, Pauline Gaulmin, Chloé Hatrisse, Emeline Azevedo, Jean-Marie Denoix, Khalil Ben Mansour, Pauline Martin, Fabrice Audigié, Henry Chateau and Frédéric Marin

Sensors 2023, 23(21), 8832; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23218832 - 30 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1345

Abstract

Hydrotherapy has been utilized in horse rehabilitation programs for over four decades. However, a comprehensive description of the swimming cycle of horses is still lacking. One of the challenges in studying this motion is 3D underwater motion capture, which holds potential not only for understanding equine locomotion but also for enhancing human swimming performance. In this study, a marker-based system that combines underwater cameras and markers drawn on horses is developed. This system enables the reconstruction of the 3D motion of the front and hind limbs of six horses throughout an entire swimming cycle, with a total of twelve recordings. The procedures for pre- and post-processing the videos are described in detail, along with an assessment of the estimated error. This study estimates the reconstruction error on a checkerboard and computes an estimated error of less than 10 mm for segments of tens of centimeters and less than 1 degree for angles of tens of degrees. This study computes the 3D joint angles of the front limbs (shoulder, elbow, carpus, and front fetlock) and hind limbs (hip, stifle, tarsus, and hind fetlock) during a complete swimming cycle for the six horses. The ranges of motion observed are as follows: shoulder: 17 ± 3°; elbow: 76 ± 11°; carpus: 99 ± 10°; front fetlock: 68 ± 12°; hip: 39 ± 3°; stifle: 68 ± 7°; tarsus: 99 ± 6°; hind fetlock: 94 ± 8°. By comparing the joint angles during a swimming cycle to those observed during classical gaits, this study reveals a greater range of motion (ROM) for most joints during swimming, except for the front and hind fetlocks. This larger ROM is usually achieved through a larger maximal flexion angle (smaller minimal angle of the joints). Finally, the versatility of the system allows us to imagine applications outside the scope of horses, including other large animals and even humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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19 pages, 1786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is Running Power a Useful Metric? Quantifying Training Intensity and Aerobic Fitness Using Stryd Running Power Near the Maximal Lactate Steady State

by Cody R. van Rassel, Oluwatimilehin O. Ajayi, Kate M. Sales, James K. Griffiths, Jared R. Fletcher, W. Brent Edwards and Martin J. MacInnis

Sensors 2023, 23(21), 8729; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23218729 - 26 Oct 2023

Viewed by 2163

Abstract

We sought to determine the utility of Stryd, a commercially available inertial measurement unit, to quantify running intensity and aerobic fitness. Fifteen (eight male, seven female) runners (age = 30.2 [4.3] years;

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O₂max = 54.5 [6.5] ml·kg⁻¹·min [...] Read more.

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O₂max = 54.5 [6.5] ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) performed moderate- and heavy-intensity step transitions, an incremental exercise test, and constant-speed running trials to establish the maximal lactate steady state (MLSS). Stryd running power stability, sensitivity, and reliability were evaluated near the MLSS. Stryd running power was also compared to running speed,

\overset{\cdot}{V}

O₂, and metabolic power measures to estimate running mechanical efficiency (EFF) and to determine the efficacy of using Stryd to delineate exercise intensities, quantify aerobic fitness, and estimate running economy (RE). Stryd running power was strongly associated with

\overset{\cdot}{V}

O₂ (R² = 0.84; p < 0.001) and running speed at the MLSS (R² = 0.91; p < 0.001). Stryd running power measures were strongly correlated with RE at the MLSS when combined with metabolic data (R² = 0.79; p < 0.001) but not in isolation from the metabolic data (R² = 0.08; p = 0.313). Measures of running EFF near the MLSS were not different across intensities (~21%; p > 0.05). In conclusion, although Stryd could not quantify RE in isolation, it provided a stable, sensitive, and reliable metric that can estimate aerobic fitness, delineate exercise intensities, and approximate the metabolic requirements of running near the MLSS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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20 pages, 11449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomechanical Analysis of Golf Swing Motion Using Hilbert–Huang Transform

by Ran Dong and Soichiro Ikuno

Sensors 2023, 23(15), 6698; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156698 - 26 Jul 2023

Viewed by 2220

Abstract

In golf swing analysis, high-speed cameras and Trackman devices are traditionally used to collect data about the club, ball, and putt. However, these tools are costly and often inaccessible to golfers. This research proposes an alternative solution, employing an affordable inertial motion capture system to record golf swing movements accurately. The focus is discerning the differences between motions producing straight and slice trajectories. Commonly, the opening motion of the body’s left half and the head-up motion are associated with a slice trajectory. We employ the Hilbert–Huang transform (HHT) to examine these motions in detail to conduct a biomechanical analysis. The gathered data are then processed through HHT, calculating their instantaneous frequency and amplitude. The research found discernible differences between straight and slice trajectories in the golf swing’s moment of impact within the instantaneous frequency domain. An average golfer, a single handicapper, and three beginner golfers were selected as the subjects in this study and analyzed using the proposed method, respectively. For the average golfer, the head and the left leg amplitudes of the swing motions increase at the moment of impact of the swings, resulting in the slice trajectory. These results indicate that an opening of the legs and head-up movements have been detected and extracted as non-linear frequency components, reviewing the biomechanical meaning in slice trajectory motion. For the single handicapper, the hip and left arm joints could be the target joints to detect the biomechanical motion that triggered the slice trajectory. For the beginners, since their golf swing forms were not finalized, the biomechanical motions regarding slice trajectory were different from each swing, indicating that beginner golfers need more practice to fix their golf swing form first. These results revealed that our proposed framework applied to different golf levels and could help golfers to improve their golf swing skills to achieve straight trajectories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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9 pages, 276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Tiers within a Competitive Age Group of Young Swimmers Are Characterized by Different Kinetic and Kinematic Behaviors

by Catarina C. Santos, Nuno D. Garrido, Francisco Cuenca-Fernández, Daniel A. Marinho and Mário J. Costa

Sensors 2023, 23(11), 5113; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115113 - 27 May 2023

Viewed by 1461

Abstract

The present study aimed to analyze swimmers’ in-water kinetic and kinematic behaviors according to different swimming performance tiers within the same age group. An amount of 53 highly trained swimmers (girls and boys: 12.40 ± 0.74 years) were split up into 3 tiers based on their personal best performance (i.e., speed) in the 50 m freestyle event (short-course): lower-tier (1.25 ± 0.08 m·s⁻¹); mid-tier (1.45 ± 0.04 m·s⁻¹); and top-tier (1.60 ± 0.04 m·s⁻¹). The in-water mean peak force was measured during a maximum bout of 25 m front crawl using a differential pressure sensors system (Aquanex system, Swimming Technology Research, Richmond, VA, USA) and defined as a kinetic variable, while speed, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke index were retrieved and considered as kinematic measures. The top-tier swimmers were taller with a longer arm span and hand surface areas than the low-tier, but similar to the mid-tier. While the mean peak force, speed and efficiency differed among tiers, the stroke rate and stroke length showed mixed findings. Coaches should be aware that young swimmers belonging to the same age group may deliver different performance outcomes due to different kinetic and kinematic behaviors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

12 pages, 1715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Effects of Lateral-Wedge Insoles on Plantar-Pressure Pattern for Medial Knee Osteoarthritis Using the Wearable Sensing Insole

by Wei-Ching Hsu, Li-Wei Chou, Hsiao-Yen Chiu, Chang-Wei Hsieh and Wen-Pin Hu

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010084 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2654

Abstract

Patients with knee osteoarthritis have a unique plantar-pressure pattern during walking, and lateral-wedge insoles are one of the treatment options. Participants were randomly assigned to either the lateral-wedge insole group or the ordinary insole group. The Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC), and plantar-pressure test scores were evaluated at the baseline and at 20 weeks. Plantar pressure data were collected using a pressure insole with 89 sensing locations. In the ordinary insole group, the function and total WOMAC scores decreased significantly (function score, 24.8 (baseline) to 16.5 (week 20); total score, 34.9 (baseline) to 24.6 (week 20)). During walking, the transverse width of the center of pressure as a percentage of foot width (%Trans) significantly increased in the ordinary insole group (baseline, 6.3%; week 20, 14.8%). In addition, the values of partial foot pressure as a percentage of body weight (%PFP) on the forefoot (baseline, 30.3%; week 20, 39.2%) and heel (baseline, 28.1%; week 20, 16.9%) also increased significantly in the ordinary insole group. Significant group-by-time interaction effects were observed for partial foot pressure per body weight in the forefoot (p = 0.031) and heel (p = 0.024). In the ordinary insole group, the plantar pressure on the heel significantly decreased (p = 0.011) and that on the forefoot significantly increased (p = 0.023). In contrast, plantar pressure remained stable in all regions in the lateral-wedge insole group. Thus, lateral-wedge insoles may protect against plantar pressure deterioration in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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13 pages, 1384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing Intra-Cycle Velocity Profile and Trunk Inclination during Wheelchair Racing Propulsion

by Yoann Poulet, Florian Brassart, Emeline Simonetti, Hélène Pillet, Arnaud Faupin and Christophe Sauret

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010058 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1590

Abstract

The analysis of intra-cycle velocity profile of manual wheelchair (MWC) users has been used to highlight the significant role of trunk inertia in propulsion biomechanics. Maximal wheelchair linear velocity has previously been observed to be reached after the release of the handrims both during sports activities and daily life propulsion. This paper provides a combined analysis of linear velocity and trunk kinematics in elite wheelchair racing athletes during straight-line propulsion at stabilized speeds. MWC and trunk kinematics of eight athletes (level: 7 elite, 1 intermediate; classification: T54 (5), T53 (2) and T52 (1)) were monitored during 400 m races using inertial measurement units. An average propulsion cycle was computed for each athlete. The main finding of this article is the difference in propulsion patterns among the athletes, exhibiting either 1, 2 or 3 peaks in their velocity profile. A second peak in velocity is usually assumed to be caused by the inertia of the trunk. However, the presence of a second velocity peak among more severely impaired athletes with little to no trunk motion can either be associated to the inertia of the athletes’ arms or to their propulsion technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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13 pages, 2099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of an Automatic Inertial Sensor-Based Methodology for Detailed Barbell Velocity Monitoring during Maximal Paralympic Bench Press

by Lorenzo Rum, Tommaso Sciarra, Nicoletta Balletti, Aldo Lazich and Elena Bergamini

Sensors 2022, 22(24), 9904; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249904 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1616

Abstract

Current technologies based on inertial measurement units (IMUs) are considered valid and reliable tools for monitoring barbell velocity in strength training. However, the extracted outcomes are often limited to a few velocity metrics, such as mean or maximal velocity. This study aimed at validating a single IMU-based methodology to automatically obtain the barbell velocity full profile as well as key performance metrics during maximal Paralympic bench press. Seven Paralympic powerlifters (age: 30.5 ± 4.3 years, sitting height: 71.6 ± 6.8 cm, body mass: 72.5 ± 16.4 kg, one-repetition maximum: 148.4 ± 38.6 kg) performed four attempts of maximal Paralympic bench press. The barbell velocity profile and relevant metrics were automatically obtained from IMU linear acceleration through a custom-made algorithm and validated against a video-based reference system. The mean difference between devices was 0.00 ± 0.04 m·s⁻¹ with low limits of agreement (<0.09 m·s⁻¹) and moderate-to-good reliability (ICC: 0.55–0.90). Linear regression analysis showed large-to-very large associations between paired measurements (r: 0.57–0.91, p < 0.003; SEE: 0.02–0.06 m·s⁻¹). The analysis of velocity curves showed a high spatial similarity and small differences between devices. The proposed methodology provided a good level of agreement, making it suitable for different applications in barbell velocity monitoring during maximal Paralympic bench press. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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21 pages, 1298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Experiment Examination of Habitual and Manipulated Foot Placement Angles on the Kinetics, Kinematics, and Muscle Forces of the Barbell Back Squat in Male Lifters

by Jonathan Sinclair, Paul John Taylor, Gareth Shadwell, Mark Stone, Nicole Booth, Bryan Jones, Sam Finlay, Ashraf Mohamed Ali, Bobbie Butters, Ian Bentley and Christopher James Edmundson

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 6999; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22186999 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1940

Abstract

This two-experiment study aimed to examine the effects of different habitual foot placement angles and also the effects of manipulating the foot placement angle on the kinetics, three-dimensional kinematics and muscle forces of the squat. In experiment 1, seventy lifters completed squats at 70% of their one repetition maximum using a self-preferred placement angle. They were separated based on their habitual foot angle into three groups HIGH, MEDIUM and LOW. In experiment 2, twenty lifters performed squats using the same relative mass in four different foot placement angle conditions (0°, 21°, 42° and control). Three-dimensional kinematics were measured using an eight-camera motion analysis system, ground reaction forces (GRF) using a force platform, and muscle forces using musculoskeletal modelling techniques. In experiment 1, the impulse of the medial GRF, in the descent and ascent phases, was significantly greater in the HIGH group compared to LOW, and in experiment 2 statistically greater in the 42° compared to the 21°, 0° and control conditions. Experiment 2 showed that the control condition statistically increased quadriceps muscle forces in relation to 0°, whereas the 0° condition significantly enhanced gluteus maximus, gastrocnemius and soleus forces compared to control. In experiment 1, patellofemoral joint stress was significantly greater in the HIGH group compared to LOW, and in experiment 2, patellar and patellofemoral loading were statistically greater in the control compared to the 42°, 21°, 0° and control conditions. Owing to the greater medial GRF’s, increased foot placement angles may improve physical preparedness for sprint performance and rapid changes of direction. Reducing the foot angle may attenuate the biomechanical mechanisms linked to the aetiology of knee pathologies and to promote gluteus maximus, gastrocnemius and soleus muscular development. As such, though there does not appear to be an optimal foot placement angle, the observations from this study can be utilised by both strength and conditioning and sports therapy practitioners seeking to maximise training and rehabilitative adaptations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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11 pages, 3343 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Evaluation of the Foot Center of Pressure Estimation from Pressure Insoles during Sidestep Cuts, Runs and Walks

by Pauline Morin, Antoine Muller, Charles Pontonnier and Georges Dumont

Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5628; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155628 - 27 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1974

Abstract

Estimating the foot center of pressure (CoP) position by pressure insoles appears to be an interesting technical solution to perform motion analysis beyond the force platforms surface area. The aim of this study was to estimate the CoP position from Moticon

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pressure [...] Read more.

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pressure insoles during sidestep cuts, runs and walks. The CoP positions assessed from force platform data and from pressure insole data were compared. One calibration trial performed on the force platforms was used to localize the insoles in the reference coordinate system. The most accurate results were obtained when the motion performed during the calibration trial was similar to the motion under study. In such a case, mean accuracy of CoP position have been evaluated to

15 \pm 4

mm along anteroposterior (AP) axis and

8.5 \pm 3

mm along mediolateral (ML) axis for sidestep cuts,

18 \pm 5

mm along AP axis and

7.3 \pm 4

mm along ML axis for runs,

15 \pm 6

mm along AP axis and

6.6 \pm 3

mm along ML axis for walks. The accuracy of the CoP position assesment from pressure insole data increased with the vertical force applied to the pressure insole and with the number of pressure cells involved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Wearable Technologies in Sport Biomechanics)

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