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RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2024) | Viewed by 48162

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Dr. Antonio Lázaro

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Department of Electronic, Electrical, and Automatic Engineering, University Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
Interests: microwave device modeling; on-wafer noise measurements; RF-MEMS; antennas; RFID; UWB radar systems; vital-sign monitoring; wireless sensor networks; microwave systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. David Girbau

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Department of Electronic, Electrical and Automatic Engineering, University Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
Interests: RFID and UWB technologies; the design of RFID tags and sensors using new materials used as sensors, operated at high frequencies; the use of NFC as enabling technology to power-up and read sensors to be used in collaborative networks in the IoT, in medical applications and in smart cities
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Ramon Villarino

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Department of Electronic, Electrical, and Automatic Engineering, University Rovira i Virgili, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
Interests: radiometry; microwave devices and systems based on UWB; RFIDs and frequency selective structures using metamaterials (MM)

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The growth of Internet of Things (IoT) applications requires energy efficient sensors that are capable of working autonomously, have reduced environmental pollution associated with battery waste, have improved lifespans, and have reduced manual recharge problems. Green sensors based on radio frequency identification (RFID), where the communication between the reader and the tag is based on backscattering communications, is an example of IoT technology.
The integration of sensors in passive and semi-passive tags to monitor different magnitudes at different frequency-bands and applications has experienced a growing commercial interest. Different approaches, such as chip-based and chipless sensors, have been investigated. Recently, there has been increasing market interest in battery-less sensors based on near-field communication (NFC), which incorporates energy harvesting systems, and ultra high frequency (UHF) RFID. Moreover, the advances in communication technologies at millimeter-wave frequency bands have opened new opportunities for RFID and radar sensor applications. In addition to RFID technology, backscatter radio is a promising communication scheme for novel long-range communications based on zero-power backscatters that allow for communication by ambient backscattering radio-frequency signals.
This Special Issue is focused on sensors based on RFID and backscattering communication systems. Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

Zero-power wireless sensors and ambient backscatter communications
Chipless sensors
Near-field communication (NFC) sensors
UHF RFID sensors
Wearable and implanted devices based on backscatter communication
Millimeter-wave backscatter sensors
UWB sensors
Backscatter sensors with energy harvesting

Prof. Dr. Antonio Lázaro
Prof. Dr. David Girbau
Prof. Dr. Ramon Villarino
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 10234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Passive Pressure-Sensing Method for Cryogenic Applications Using Magnetoresistors

by Ziqi Zhao, Michitaka Yamamoto, Seiichi Takamatsu and Toshihiro Itoh

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 717; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030717 - 23 Jan 2024

Viewed by 855

Abstract

In this study, we developed a novel wireless, passive pressure-sensing method functional at cryogenic temperatures (−196 °C). The currently used pressure sensors are inconvenient and complicated in cryogenic environments for their weak low-temperature tolerances and long wires for power supply and data transmission. We propose a novel pressure-sensing method for cryogenic applications by only using low-temperature-tolerant passive devices. By innovatively integrating a magnetoresistor (MR) on a backscattering antenna, the pressure inside a cryogenic environment is transferred to a wirelessly obtainable return loss. Wireless passive measurement is thus achieved using a backscattering method. In the measurement, the pressure causes a relative displacement between the MR and a magnet. The MR’s resistance changes with the varied magnetic field, thus modulating the antenna’s return loss. The experimental results indicate that our fabricated sensor successfully identified different pressures, with high sensitivities of 4.3 dB/MPa at room temperature (24 °C) and 1.3 dB/MPa at cryogenic temperature (−196 °C). Additionally, our method allows for simultaneous wireless readings of multi sensors via a single reading device by separating the frequency band of each sensor. Our method performs low-cost, simple, robust, passive, and wireless pressure measurement at −196 °C; thus, it is desirable for cryogenic applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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17 pages, 552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Robust RFID Tag Identification

by David Benedetti and Gaia Maselli

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8406; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218406 - 01 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1592

Abstract

Fast and reliable identification of Radio Frequency Indentification (RFID) tags by means of anticollision (MAC) protocols has been a problem of substantial interest for more than a decade. However, improvements in identification rate have been slow, as most solutions rely on sequential approaches that try to avoid collisions, which have limited margin for performance improvement. Recently, there has been growing interest in concurrent techniques that exploit the structure of collisions to recover tag IDs. While these techniques promise substantial improvements in speed, a key question that remains unaddressed is how to deal with noise or interference that might introduce errors in the recovery process at the reader. Our goal in this paper is to consider a noisy wireless channel and add robustness to concurrent RFID identification techniques. We propose a new protocol, called CIRF (Concurrent Identification of RFids), which uses multiple antennas to add robustness to noise and leverages block sparsity-based optimization to recover EPC IDs of transmitting tags. We include fail-safe methods to handle errors that persist after the optimization stage. Extensive simulations show that CIRF achieves substantial resilience improvement in a range of very low to medium Signal-to-Noise (SNR) situations, being able to always correctly recover 99% of tags. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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25 pages, 3041 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spoofing Attacks on FMCW Radars with Low-Cost Backscatter Tags

by Antonio Lazaro, Arnau Porcel, Marc Lazaro, Ramon Villarino and David Girbau

Sensors 2022, 22(6), 2145; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062145 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

This work studies the feasibility of using backscatter-modulated tags to introduce false information into a signal received by a frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) radar. A proof-of-concept spoofing device was designed in the 24 GHz ISM band. The spoofing device was based on an amplifier connected between two antennas, and modulation was carried out by switching the amplifier bias. The use of an amplifier allowed us to increase the level of spoofing signal compared with other modulated backscattering methods. The simulated and experimental results show that our method has the ability to generate a pair of false targets at different ranges and velocities depending on the modulation frequency of the chosen tag, since sidebands appear due to this modulation. Countermeasures to detect the spoofing attack based on changes in the slope of the frequency sweep between frames are also proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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16 pages, 1115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Guidelines for Sensors Based on Spiral Resonators

by Mahmoud Elgeziry, Filippo Costa and Simone Genovesi

Sensors 2022, 22(5), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22052071 - 07 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2182

Abstract

Wireless microwave sensors provide a practical alternative where traditional contact-based measurement techniques are not possible to implement or suffer from performance deterioration. Resonating elements are commonly used in these sensors as the sensing concept relies on the resonance properties of the employed structure. This work presents some simple guidelines for designing displacement sensors based on spiral resonator (SR) tags. The working principle of this sensor is based on the variation of the coupling strength between the SR tag and a probing microstrip loop with the distance between them. The performance of the sensor depends on the main design parameters, such as tag dimensions, filling factor, number of turns, and the size of probing loop. The guidelines provided herein can be used for the initial phase of the design process by helping to select a preliminary set of parameters according to the desired application requirements. The provided conclusions are supported using electromagnetic simulations and analytical expressions. Finally, a corrected equivalent circuit model that takes into account the phenomenon of the resonant frequency shift at small distances is provided. The findings are compared against experimental measurements to verify their validity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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28 pages, 4733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Face Mask with an Integrated Heat Flux Sensor for Fast and Remote People’s Healthcare Monitoring

by Marc Lazaro, Antonio Lazaro, Ramon Villarino and David Girbau

Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7472; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227472 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4016

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted a large amount of challenges to address. To combat the spread of the virus, several safety measures, such as wearing face masks, have been taken. Temperature controls at the entrance of public places to prevent the entry of virus carriers have been shown to be inefficient and inaccurate. This paper presents a smart mask that allows to monitor body temperature and breathing rate. Body temperature is measured by a non-invasive dual-heat-flux system, consisting of four sensors separated from each other with an insulating material. Breathing rate is obtained from the temperature changes within the mask, measured with a thermistor located near the nose. The system communicates by means of long-range (LoRa) backscattering, leading to a reduction in average power consumption. It is designed to establish the relative location of the smart mask from the signal received at two LoRa receivers installed inside and outside an access door. Low-cost LoRa transceivers with WiFi capabilities are used in the prototype to collect information and upload it to a server. Accuracy in body temperature measurements is consistent with measurements made with a thermistor located in the armpit. The system allows checking the correct placement of the mask based on the recorded temperatures and the breathing rate measurements. Besides, episodes of cough can be detected by sudden changes in thermistor temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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14 pages, 14458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Results and Performance Analysis of a 1 × 2 × 1 UHF MIMO Passive RFID System

by Helio Augusto Muzamane and Hsin-Chin Liu

Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6308; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186308 - 21 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2598

Abstract

Ultra-high frequency (UHF) multiple input multiple output (MIMO) passive radio frequency identification (RFID) systems have attracted the attention of many researchers in the last few years. The system modeling and theoretical performance analysis of these systems have been well investigated and revealed in many studies, yet the system prototype and the corresponding experimental results are scarce. In this study, measurements of a 1 × 2 × 1 UHF passive RFID system, including a MIMO UHF passive RFID tag prototype and its corresponding software-defined radio-based reader, taken in a microwave anechoic chamber, are presented. The experimental results are compared with theoretical values and computer simulations. The overall results demonstrate the consistency and the feasibility of UHF MIMO passive RFID systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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25 pages, 6677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proof of Concept Novel Configurable Chipless RFID Strain Sensor

by Kevin Mc Gee, Prince Anandarajah and David Collins

Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6224; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186224 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2597

Abstract

This paper contains two main areas of research: First, this work outlines a novel, highly sensitive strain sensor design that should support various levels of deformation, depending on the substrate type used. Physical implementations in this work have focused on proving its large deformation capabilities, and simulations have been used to assess its more general electromagnetic response. The other part of this paper focusses on exploring other effects that will impact the sensing of strain of resolutions below 10 με, which is a capability achieved by other aerospace-grade strain sensor technologies. These effects are limited to mechanical swelling and sensor orientation in the azimuth and elevation planes, as these appear to be unexplored and highly relevant issues to the topic of chipless RFID-based strain sensing. From this exploration, it is apparent that the effects of mechanical swelling and sensor orientation (amongst others) will need to be addressed in any real-life implementation of the sensor, requiring a strain resolution below 10 με. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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17 pages, 8106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chipless RFID Label with Identification and Touch-Sensing Capabilities

by Rahul Unnikrishnan, Olivier Rance, Nicolas Barbot and Etienne Perret

Sensors 2021, 21(14), 4862; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21144862 - 16 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2815

Abstract

This article presents a 14-bit chipless RFID label which, in addition to classical identification feature, can be used as decimal numeric keypad, allowing the deployment of secure access control applications. A low-cost single layer label comprising 10 RF loop scatterers is used to code information in the frequency domain. In addition, each resonator is associated to a digit in the decimal number system, and the difference in the spectrum caused by the touch event is exploited for the detection of each key pressing. The shape of the resonators has been carefully selected to be both highly resonant and to show high sensitivity to the presence or absence of the human finger. The concept is validated by measurements in an office environment using an FCC compliant low-cost chipless reader and microstrip vivaldi antennas. Simple detection algorithms are proposed for both identification and touch sensing in real environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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17 pages, 7110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Car2Car Communication Using a Modulated Backscatter and Automotive FMCW Radar

by Antonio Lazaro, Marc Lazaro, Ramon Villarino, David Girbau and Pedro de Paco

Sensors 2021, 21(11), 3656; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113656 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3251

Abstract

This work proposes the use of a modulated tag for direct communication between two vehicles using as a carrier the wave emitted by an FMCW radar installed in the vehicle for advanced driver assistance. The system allows for real-time signals detection and classification, such as stop signal, turn signals and emergency lights, adding redundancy to computer video sensors and without incorporating additional communication systems. A proof-of-concept tag has been designed at the microwave frequency of 24 GHz, consisting of an amplifier connected between receiving and transmitting antennas. The modulation is performed by switching the power supply of the amplifier. The tag is installed on the rear of the car and it answers when it is illuminated by the radar by modulating the backscattered field. The information is encoded in the modulation switching rate used. Simulated and experimental results are given showing the feasibility of the proposed solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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26 pages, 7301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Backscatter Communication Using LoRAWAN Signals for Deep Implanted Devices and Wearable Applications

by Marc Lazaro, Antonio Lazaro and Ramon Villarino

Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6342; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216342 - 06 Nov 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3538

Abstract

This paper presents a method for low data rate transmission for devices implanted in the body using backscattered Long Range (LoRa) signals. The method uses an antenna loaded with a switch that changes between two load impedances at the rate of a modulating oscillator. Consequently, the LoRa signal transmitted by a LoRa node is reflected in the adjacent channels and can be detected with a LoRa gateway tuned to the shifted channels. A prototype developed to operate at Medical Implant Communication Service (MICS) and the Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM) 433 MHz band is presented. The prototype uses a commercial ceramic antenna with a matched network tuned to the frequency band with high radiation efficiency. The effect of the coating material covering the antenna was studied. Simulated and experimental results using a phantom show that it is feasible to read data from deep implanted devices placed a few meters from the body because of the high sensitivity of commercial LoRa receivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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34 pages, 12122 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of RFID Sensors, the New Frontier of Internet of Things

by Filippo Costa, Simone Genovesi, Michele Borgese, Andrea Michel, Francesco Alessio Dicandia and Giuliano Manara

Sensors 2021, 21(9), 3138; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093138 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 111 | Viewed by 19237

Abstract

A review of technological solutions for RFID sensing and their current or envisioned applications is presented. The fundamentals of the wireless sensing technology are summarized in the first part of the work, and the benefits of adopting RFID sensors for replacing standard sensor-equipped Wi-Fi nodes are discussed. Emphasis is put on the absence of batteries and the lower cost of RFID sensors with respect to other sensor solutions available on the market. RFID sensors are critically compared by separating them into chipped and chipless configurations. Both categories are further analyzed with reference to their working mechanism (electronic, electromagnetic, and acoustic). RFID sensing through chip-equipped tags is now a mature technological solution, which is continuously increasing its presence on the market and in several applicative scenarios. On the other hand, chipless RFID sensing represents a relatively new concept, which could become a disruptive solution in the market, but further research in this field is necessary for customizing its employment in specific scenarios. The benefits and limitations of several tag configurations are shown and discussed. A summary of the most suitable applicative scenarios for RFID sensors are finally illustrated. Finally, a look at some sensing solutions available on the market are described and compared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue RFID and Zero-Power Backscatter Sensors)

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