Research

13 pages, 280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Dharma Bums: A (Fictional) Pseudo-Buddhist Hagiography, or a Pseudo-ojoden

by Ovidiu Matiu

Religions 2024, 15(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15020148 - 24 Jan 2024

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This paper analyses Jack Kerouac’s brief but intense conversion to American pseudo-Buddhism and the artistic effect of this biographical development, arguing that his conversion was total from a spiritual point of view and that its almost immediate effect was the production of a [...] Read more.

This paper analyses Jack Kerouac’s brief but intense conversion to American pseudo-Buddhism and the artistic effect of this biographical development, arguing that his conversion was total from a spiritual point of view and that its almost immediate effect was the production of a literary piece which should be read as a (fictional) pseudo-Buddhist hagiography, or a pseudo-ojoden. The article investigates Jack Kerouac’s life as the life of a modern American Buddha, as a person engaged in a constant quest for spiritual enlightenment, who imbued his work with a spiritual feeling derived from his personal, direct, albeit limited experience with spirituality. His novel, The Dharma Bums, is a (fictional) pseudo-Buddhist hagiography because it is (auto)biographical, and the central characters are portrayed as enlightened, “holy” beings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

13 pages, 888 KiB

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The Buddhist Concept of “Filial Piety” in the Context of Early Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation

by Jing Guo

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121507 - 06 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1162

Abstract

Examining the early history of the Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures, it is revealed that translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, such as An Shigao, Lokakṣema, Kang Senghui and Dharmarakṣa, already paid much attention to and began [...] Read more.

Examining the early history of the Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures, it is revealed that translators from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, such as An Shigao, Lokakṣema, Kang Senghui and Dharmarakṣa, already paid much attention to and began translating Buddhist scriptures related to “filial piety”. They even, during the translation process, altered the original meanings of some words to promote the sinicization of Buddhism or brought together the contents of several sutras to provide a more culturally attuned interpretation of the Buddhist idea of “filial piety and repayment of kindness”, in accordance with Chinese culture. With their efforts, the Chinese gradually realized that Buddhism also preached filial ethics. Buddhists were not against the value of filial piety when embracing monastic life; instead, they could accumulate merits and dedicate them to their parents and relatives, rescuing them from samsara. This introduced a fresh perspective for traditional Confucian filial piety, and highlighted the importance of “filial piety” beyond the framework of “family and state as one.” Confucianism and Buddhism were able to agree on the significance of filial piety, and Buddhism also affected and complemented the ethical cultivation of the Chinese medieval society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

16 pages, 1536 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional, Ideological and Inheritable Characteristics of Knowledge: A Survey of Three Compilations of Buddhist Encyclopedias in China from 1950s to 2000s

by Wenli Fan

Religions 2023, 14(11), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14111336 - 24 Oct 2023

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Abstract

Three official compilations of Buddhist encyclopedias were undertaken in China between the 1950s and 2000s. A sociological examination of these compilations reveals notable characteristics of the Buddhist knowledge system. Firstly, the production of knowledge manifests distinct regional attributes; it is not a process [...] Read more.

Three official compilations of Buddhist encyclopedias were undertaken in China between the 1950s and 2000s. A sociological examination of these compilations reveals notable characteristics of the Buddhist knowledge system. Firstly, the production of knowledge manifests distinct regional attributes; it is not a process of standardization or objectification, but reflects local idiosyncrasies determined by its place of origination. Secondly, the majority of modern encyclopedia compilations are integral to the construction of national knowledge systems; hence, a nation’s ideological tendencies profoundly influence the articulation of knowledge. Lastly, knowledge is transferred through two mediums: texts and people. Given the immutability of classical knowledge and the consistency of knowledge producers during this period, the results of the three compilations exhibit numerous commonalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

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25 pages, 821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Buddhist Wisdom Literature: The “Book with Verses” (Sagāthāvagga) of the Saṃyutta nikāya

by Eviatar Shulman

Religions 2023, 14(10), 1322; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14101322 - 20 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1183

Abstract

The Sagāthāvagga, the Book with Verses, and especially its third chapter, the Kosala-chapter (Kosala Saṃyutta), is presented here as a collection of early Buddhist wisdom literature. As the first book of the Pāli Saṃyutta-nikāya, the Book with Verses [...] Read more.

The Sagāthāvagga, the Book with Verses, and especially its third chapter, the Kosala-chapter (Kosala Saṃyutta), is presented here as a collection of early Buddhist wisdom literature. As the first book of the Pāli Saṃyutta-nikāya, the Book with Verses seems as an anomaly—the other four books contain some of the denser articulations of early Buddhist philosophy in the canon. Thus, scholars question whether the first book, which normally introduces verses with stories, is a real part of the collection. Scholars are also inclined to assume that the verses are the heart of the text and have shown less interest in the work’s compelling literary style. This article has three aims: First, it shows how the book, and most distinctly its third chapter, is a form of wisdom literature, with protagonist King Pasenadi of Kosala being comparable to wisdom-kings like King Solomon or Alexander the Great, and anticipating the classic Buddhist wisdom-king Aśoka. Second, it shows how this collection was designed for a performance by storytellers or preachers, suggesting that this is a feature of the Buddhist genre of prose that introduces verses. Third, it demonstrates the organic connection between the first book and the other books of the Saṃyutta. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

30 pages, 1860 KiB

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Miracle Stories in Motion—On the Three Editions of Guangshiyin Yingyanji

by Chon Iat Lai

Religions 2023, 14(9), 1114; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091114 - 28 Aug 2023

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Abstract

Previous studies have assumed that the purpose of Yingyanji was to produce texts that are proselytistic or evangelical. Through the analysis of Guangshiyin Yingyanji, we find that lay people have created Yingyanji for a long time. Its main purpose was not to [...] Read more.

Previous studies have assumed that the purpose of Yingyanji was to produce texts that are proselytistic or evangelical. Through the analysis of Guangshiyin Yingyanji, we find that lay people have created Yingyanji for a long time. Its main purpose was not to spread religion, but to record regional memories and family beliefs, which were mainly circulated among friends and relatives. Moreover, the miracle stories contained in Guangshiyin Yingyanji often have different versions within the three systems of Zhiguai, Yingyan, and Gantong. Through an analysis of these different versions, we can better grasp the purpose of rewriting texts under different systems, and the struggle for ideas which they embody. Full article

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20 pages, 1039 KiB

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“Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry

by Xiaoxiao Xu

Religions 2023, 14(8), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081077 - 21 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1183

Abstract

Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a prominent figure in modern Chinese Buddhism, produced a voluminous collection of poetry abounding with diverse classical Chinese images. Notably, the “lamp and candle” (dengzhu 燈燭) holds great significance, reflecting Taixu’s personal affinity with this imagery and an intimate [...] Read more.

Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a prominent figure in modern Chinese Buddhism, produced a voluminous collection of poetry abounding with diverse classical Chinese images. Notably, the “lamp and candle” (dengzhu 燈燭) holds great significance, reflecting Taixu’s personal affinity with this imagery and an intimate connection to classical Chinese poetry. Acting as a potent Buddhist metaphor, it encapsulates multifaceted sentiments while also intertwining with other evocative images, such as the boat, the moon, and falling leaves. Symbolizing Taixu’s unwavering spirit, it represents his profound dedication to his craft. This article explores Taixu’s literary achievements as a poet by focusing on his adept utilization of “lamp and candle” imagery, complementing the study of his multifaceted and intricate identities. This detailed examination offers novel insights into Chinese literature and Buddhist studies, highlighting the interplay between spiritual practice and artistic expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

28 pages, 1039 KiB

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Statement or Supramundanity? Making Sense of Śūraṃgama-Samādhi and Its Related Narratives

by Can Li

Religions 2023, 14(8), 974; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14080974 - 28 Jul 2023

Viewed by 741

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to provide a new interpretation for the term Śūraṃgama-samādhi, an important concept in the Mahāyāna literature, by proposing new exegeses of its primary and derivative meanings as they appear in the Śūraṃgamasamādhi-sūtra (hereafter SSS). [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper is to provide a new interpretation for the term Śūraṃgama-samādhi, an important concept in the Mahāyāna literature, by proposing new exegeses of its primary and derivative meanings as they appear in the Śūraṃgamasamādhi-sūtra (hereafter SSS). While many have defined samādhi as a form of meditative practice, a state of mind, or a collection of terms as argued by Andrew Skilton, the concept samādhi in the SSS can be understood as a locus of gathering or convergence in the metaphorical sense. In SSS, this metaphorical location refers to the supramundane state of those buddhas and tenth-stage bodhisattvas, wherein all his supernatural powers and manifestations converge. Lamotte’s interpretation of Śūraṃgama as “marche héroïque/heroic progress”, however, only provides a single understanding of this polysemous concept. This article will offer a more nuanced understanding and interpretation of this compound term. Regarding the derivative meanings of the term, the present paper argues that the traditional interpretation of the term Śūraṃgama-samādhi (in the derivative meaning) as self-referential to the sūtra itself (Śūraṃgama-samādhi = SSS) does not align with the meaning of the term as it appears in the SSS. The exclusion of “self-reference” in our interpretation of the derivative meaning of the term therefore avoids the paradox of an “infinite loop of self-reference” as presented by past studies on the subject. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

22 pages, 22867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Filial Piety in Fluidity: The Tension between the Textual and Visual Traditions of Śyāma Jātaka in Early Medieval China

by Jinchao Zhao

Religions 2023, 14(7), 860; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070860 - 30 Jun 2023

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Abstract

The Śyāma jātaka is renowned for its portrayal of a devoted son who cared for his blind parents. The story has been translated into various textual versions and depicted in reliefs and murals, gaining wide circulation in the Buddhist world. Previous scholarship on the [...] Read more.

The Śyāma jātaka is renowned for its portrayal of a devoted son who cared for his blind parents. The story has been translated into various textual versions and depicted in reliefs and murals, gaining wide circulation in the Buddhist world. Previous scholarship on the story’s transmission in China has primarily focused on its representation of filial piety and its resonance with the Chinese context. However, a careful examination of surviving visual depictions of jātaka stories brings to light historical and regional disparities that have often been overlooked in relation to the reception of Śyāma jātaka’s didactic teachings in early medieval China. While the story has flourished in North China (including the Central Plain and the Hexi Corridor) from the late fifth century onwards, it was intriguingly absent from the region during the first half of the sixth century. This absence of the Śyāma jātaka stands in contrast to the popularity of other jātakas such as Sudāna and Mahasattva, which were widely circulated in China. In this article, I explore the uneven adaptation of the Śyāma jātaka within Chinese visual culture by placing the story’s textual and visual traditions within the broader historical milieu of depicting Buddhist stories and filial paragons in the sixth century. My study demonstrates that the story’s theme in multiple dimensions was simplified to filial piety during the textual translation process of the story in third- and fourth-century China. Moreover, it reveals that the story’s visual legacy faced challenges and negotiations when integrating into the local teaching of filial piety. This reluctance can be attributed to two historical factors: the revival of pre-existing visual traditions depicting Chinese filial sons, and the growing preference for other jātakas that embodied teachings on generosity in early sixth-century North China. Furthermore, this study sheds light on the tension between textual and visual traditions when incorporating Buddhist teachings into a new social context. While various rhetoric strategies were developed in text translation to integrate Buddhist teachings into existing Chinese thought, the visual tradition posed separate questions regarding its necessity, the didactic intentions of patrons, and the visual logic understood by viewers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

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12 pages, 825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intention, Action, and Outcome: Sanctioning Patterns in the Four Pārājikas of the Vinayas

by Wei Li and Zhi Huang

Religions 2023, 14(6), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060774 - 12 Jun 2023

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Abstract

The sanctions for prohibited behavior in Vinaya texts are based on the precepts. It is, however, in the padabhājaniya (commentaries on the prātimokṣa) and the vinītaka (case-law sections) that these sanctions are further developed and explained. In the Vinayas, intention (the monk’s [...] Read more.

The sanctions for prohibited behavior in Vinaya texts are based on the precepts. It is, however, in the padabhājaniya (commentaries on the prātimokṣa) and the vinītaka (case-law sections) that these sanctions are further developed and explained. In the Vinayas, intention (the monk’s motivations while committing an act), action (the action that the monk carried out), and outcome (the effect of this action on others) are generally understood to be the three factors that affect the sanctioning principles. Intention is considered the most essential factor because a monk who has performed, without motivation, a negligent action is often declared innocent in the Vinayas. However, some scholars argue that the requirement of intention pertains only to misdemeanors, not to serious offenses, and is not an overriding factor. This article investigates the logic informing the sanctions concerning intention, action, and outcome in the vibhaṅgas for the four pārājikas, including the precepts, the padabhājaniya, and the vinītaka. It is shown that this principle of conviction in fact applies to serious offenses as well as misdemeanors, although there are exceptions, such as cases in which the monk is forced to commit adultery (by being raped), etc. Although the precepts and their associated sanctions vary considerably, this article argues that an underlying logic informs them. This paper provides a typology for these sanctions by investigating the four pārājikas of the Vinayas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

14 pages, 905 KiB

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A Humane Kings Convocation Held in the Zhongxing Palace: A New Study of the P. 3808 Sutra Sermon

by Changchun Pei and Wei Li

Religions 2023, 14(6), 718; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060718 - 30 May 2023

Viewed by 802

Abstract

P. 3808 records a popular sermons ceremony, which was a Buddhist folk preaching event held in the Zhongxing Palace to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang. Through the analysis of this text, it is possible to conduct a more comprehensive [...] Read more.

P. 3808 records a popular sermons ceremony, which was a Buddhist folk preaching event held in the Zhongxing Palace to celebrate the birthday of Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang. Through the analysis of this text, it is possible to conduct a more comprehensive study of Buddhist popular sermons that formed and gradually developed during the mid-Tang Dynasty. Additionally, this analysis can provide a more systematic understanding of the Humane Kings Convocations (Renwang hui 仁王會), which have had a significant impact on East Asia since the late Southern Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

18 pages, 894 KiB

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The Establishment of Buddhist Creation Myth Text—Investigation Based on Narrative Context and Clues

by Yingjin Chen

Religions 2023, 14(6), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060706 - 25 May 2023

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Abstract

The creation myths recorded in the Buddhist canon (Skt. Tripiṭaka; Pal. Tipiṭaka) reveal to us the various genesis scenarios adopted by early Buddhists concerning the formation of the world and the emergence of human beings in this world. The contents of [...] Read more.

The creation myths recorded in the Buddhist canon (Skt. Tripiṭaka; Pal. Tipiṭaka) reveal to us the various genesis scenarios adopted by early Buddhists concerning the formation of the world and the emergence of human beings in this world. The contents of these stories can be divided into three basic narrative elements: (1) the calamities and the formation of the world; (2) the devolution of sentient beings and the establishment of a worldly ruling order; and (3) the origin of the caste system and the royal pedigree of the Śākya clan. There are differences in the various accounts and in the details of the narratives as they appear in the Āgamas. Through a comparison of the narrative structure and content of various texts, this article will extrapolate on the narrative context that informed these myths. This article will argue, among other things, that when these myths were composed, they were directed at followers (Pal. bhikkhus) from Brahminical backgrounds. Segments of the genesis story were, moreover, incorporated into the Vinaya texts as narrative aids to help communicate certain lessons. The purpose of this article is to explore the topic of cosmology in texts such as the Shiji jing 世紀經 in the Dīrgha-āgama and the “Qiri pin” 七日品 in the Ekottara-āgama, both of which were later additions to these larger Āgamas. The Poluopo tang jing 婆羅婆堂經 in the Madhyama-āgama and the Aggañña-sutta in the Dīgha-nikāya both contain similar formulaic sentences and descriptions which show that they may come from the same source. The Poluopo tang jing might, however, be an older text. Finally, the different contents found in texts such as the Xiaoyuan jing 小缘經 that contains details on the five castes indicate that it may have come from a different source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

12 pages, 1081 KiB

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“Once upon a Time”—So What? The Importance of Place in Buddhist Narratives

by Max Deeg

Religions 2023, 14(6), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060690 - 23 May 2023

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Abstract

This paper deals with the aspect of place (space) in Buddhist narratives. Starting from the observation that narrated time is often vaguely indicated in Buddhist narratives, but places and sites of the narrated events are quite specific—although frequently introduced in a stereotypical way [...] Read more.

This paper deals with the aspect of place (space) in Buddhist narratives. Starting from the observation that narrated time is often vaguely indicated in Buddhist narratives, but places and sites of the narrated events are quite specific—although frequently introduced in a stereotypical way (“Once the Buddha dwelled in Śrāvastī …” “Once when Brahmadatta was king in Vārāṇasī …”)—the question is asked why a place is so important for and in Buddhist narratives. Based on selected examples, the argument is made that it is the “blueprint” of “early” Buddhist biographical sources, with the Buddha acting/preaching at specific places, which made these places accessible spaces where merit could be gained through “contact” with soteriologically important events in the past. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

18 pages, 34849 KiB

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The Wall Painting of “Siddhārtha Descending on the Elephant” in Kizil Cave 110

by Fang Wang

Religions 2023, 14(5), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050677 - 19 May 2023

Viewed by 1337

Abstract

The mural scene under discussion illustrates Bodhisatva Siddhārtha’s descent into Māyā’s womb, a scene that is also named Māyā’s Dream in art historical studies. Painted as the start of the Buddha’s life sequence in Kizil Cave 110, it is the sole extant case [...] Read more.

The mural scene under discussion illustrates Bodhisatva Siddhārtha’s descent into Māyā’s womb, a scene that is also named Māyā’s Dream in art historical studies. Painted as the start of the Buddha’s life sequence in Kizil Cave 110, it is the sole extant case of this story motif in Kucha. Its significance rests on the fact that it bridges Indian and Chinese pictorial traditions in its representation of the miraculous conception of Buddha’s last life. This article analyses the mural’s narrative elements in terms of Indian archetypes, as well as local innovations. The portrayal of Siddhārtha entering the mother-to-be’s womb while riding an elephant is compared with its counterpart motif in Chinese Buddhist art from the mid 5th century. The approach will address the drastic textual and pictorial transformations between the Indian prototype, “Siddhārtha as the elephant”, and the Chinese version, “Siddhārtha on the elephant”, in the conception episode, which reflects the transmission of the Indian belief in embryogenesis and its adaption by non-Indian peoples in Central Asia and China. Reinvestigating this picture and several pertinent literary works, the article attempts to delineate one link in that transformation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

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12 pages, 856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Did Bhikṣuṇī Meet Indian Astrology? Viewing the Buddhist Narration and Logic from the Story of the Mātaṅga Girl

by Liqun Zhou

Religions 2023, 14(5), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050657 - 15 May 2023

Viewed by 1072

Abstract

The story of Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna consists of stories of the present life and past life. The former is about a girl from the low-caste Mātaṅga tribe who pursues Ananda, a disciple of the Buddha, but her pursuit ends in vain, and she eventually converts [...] Read more.

The story of Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna consists of stories of the present life and past life. The former is about a girl from the low-caste Mātaṅga tribe who pursues Ananda, a disciple of the Buddha, but her pursuit ends in vain, and she eventually converts to Buddhism. The latter is about a low-caste king demonstrating his knowledge of the Vedas and astrology in a bid to marry the daughter of a great Brahmin for his son. The story could be seen in various Buddhist texts, such as the Divyavadāna from Nepal and the Mātaṅga Sutra in China. This paper studies the narration and logic of Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna stories, and it makes conclusions on the commonalities in the compilation of Buddhist narratives by analyzing the beginning and end of the story, as well as its narrator, narratee, and the four conflicts (i.e., the caste barriers, the violation of precepts, the use of incantations, and the use of expertise in seeking marriage). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

16 pages, 1220 KiB

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The “Adbhuta-Dharma” Narratives in Translated Chinese Sarvāstivāda Texts

by Lina Wang and Yingjin Chen

Religions 2023, 14(5), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050626 - 06 May 2023

Viewed by 1104

Abstract

The concept of “adbhuta-dharma” (Ch. weicengyou fa 未曾有法) has developed and changed throughout Buddhism’s history. Indeed, the subject and the content of adbhuta texts as well as the meaning of the term “adbhuta” (marvelous phenomenon) varies across the scriptures. [...] Read more.

The concept of “adbhuta-dharma” (Ch. weicengyou fa 未曾有法) has developed and changed throughout Buddhism’s history. Indeed, the subject and the content of adbhuta texts as well as the meaning of the term “adbhuta” (marvelous phenomenon) varies across the scriptures. Looking through the scriptures, it would seem that they originated as narrative elaborations on various aspects of the Three Jewels—the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṃgha. Then gradually, “adbhuta-dharma” came to encapsulate those narrative elements in the scriptures related to the miraculous in the life of the Buddha as well as the careers of his disciples. As one of the twelve divisions of the Buddhist canon, the literary form of the adbhutas overlaps with other canonical genres, namely the nidānas, the avadānas, and the jātakas tales. This article will provide a careful analysis of adbhuta-dharma narratives in important Sarvāstivād in Sūtras, Vinayas, Abhidharmas, and other texts such as the Chuyao jing 出曜經 and the Buddhacarita (Ch. Fo suoxing zan 佛所行贊). These narratives are important because, while many monks and laypeople might have been left uninspired by the complexities of Buddhist thought and doctrine, miracle narratives were more accessible, playing an important role in popularizing Sarvāstivāda ideas and doctrines. These miracle stories reached audiences that other Sūtra narratives and exegetical works could not, helping in the dissemination of Buddhist thought and practice, as well as the later development and spread of Mahāyāna works in India and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

27 pages, 1094 KiB

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From the Imagination to the Reality: Historical Aspects of Rewriting Six Dynasties Buddhist Avadāna Stories

by Wei Li

Religions 2023, 14(4), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040545 - 18 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1878

Abstract

In at least two aspects, Buddhist Avadāna literature shares a strong affinity with Chinese literature. One type of stories can be seen as parallel tales that bear striking resemblances to Chinese tales, while the other type has been assimilated by Chinese writers and [...] Read more.

In at least two aspects, Buddhist Avadāna literature shares a strong affinity with Chinese literature. One type of stories can be seen as parallel tales that bear striking resemblances to Chinese tales, while the other type has been assimilated by Chinese writers and transformed into Chinese tales. Regarding the first kind, there are many parallels between Buddhist and Chinese stories throughout the Six Dynasties (222–589), and it was only later that these stories were somehow compiled into collections that brought these parallels to light. As an example of the second type, in linggui zhi 靈鬼志 (The Record of Magical Ghosts) of the Jin Dynasty (265–402), the story of waiguo daoren 外國道人 (“the Foreign Master”) adapts the magical plot in which a man throws up a jug from the story of fanzhi tuhu 梵志吐壺 (“a Brahmin Spits a jug”) in the Buddhist text, yet it changes certain objects of the story to items with Chinese characteristics and develops new meaning. In Xu qixiezhi 續齊諧志 (Further Records of Qixie [Supernatural tales]), the famous e’long shusheng 鵝籠書生 (“the Goose Cage Scholar”, also known as the yangxian shusheng 陽羨書生” (the Scholar from Yangxian)”), takes the same story to another level. The structure of the story is changed, and a number of literati aesthetic interests are added, improving the literary color, smoothing down the language, and making substitutions in the text’s specifics, thus, bolstering the sense of realism and history. Meanwhile, in Liu Yiqing’s 劉義慶 (403–444) Xuanyan ji 宣驗記 (Records Manifest Records of Manifest Miracles), the Avadāna tale yingwu jiuhuo 鸚鵡救火 (“the Parrot Putting Out the Fire”) that he collected is not only associated with Buddhism but can also be seen as a commentary on the turbulent times and a hint of literati optimism if we view it in the context of Liu Yiqing’s Youminglu 幽明錄 (Record of the Hidden and Visible Worlds). The literary elites of the Six Dynasties drew inspiration from Buddhist Avadāna sources and imaginatively mixed them with historical circumstances to create Chinese fiction with new intentions. The rich resources of Avadāna literature from India and the fable tradition in Chinese literature create cultural conditions for these two sources to combine and mutually develop, forming a world of literature with colorful and meaningful stories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

15 pages, 911 KiB

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The Formation of Biaoquan and Zhequan as a Pair of Philosophical Concepts in Chinese Buddhism

by Junqi Wang

Religions 2023, 14(4), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040516 - 08 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1411

Abstract

The general consensus in the field of Buddhist studies is that the terms “biaoquan” and “zhequan” are a pair of Buddhist philosophical concepts often used to designate two diametrically opposed forms of rhetoric. The former term constitutes its affirmative [...] Read more.

The general consensus in the field of Buddhist studies is that the terms “biaoquan” and “zhequan” are a pair of Buddhist philosophical concepts often used to designate two diametrically opposed forms of rhetoric. The former term constitutes its affirmative statement, while the latter defines a fact in negative terms—known in Christian theology as cataphatic and apophatic uses of language, respectively. Looking at the terms for which biaoquan and zhequan initially served as translations, especially in Xuanzang’s works, it would seem that these two concepts have not always appeared as a related pair representing the above-mentioned affirmative–negative dichotomy. The former could designate both affirmation (*vidhi) as well as the general activity of speech, syllables, and words (nāma). In the case of zhequan, it corresponds, in different texts, to the three Indian Buddhist concepts of negation (*pratiṣedha, *vyāvṛtti, *nivṛtti), implicative negation (paryudāsa), and exclusion of others (anyāpoha), with each use of the term “zhequan” carrying a different set of meanings and associated doctrines. Indeed, in various texts, the concept of zhequan might be opposed to the concept of biaoquan (*vidhi *sadhana) or opposed to pure negation (prasajya), or it might be applied on its own with no opposing concept. However, as Chinese Buddhism continued to develop throughout the Tang, biaoquan and zhequan came to be firmly associated and popularized as a pair of opposites. Looking at the doctrinal as well as the translation history of these two terms, this paper focuses on how they were used as a pair of opposing philosophical concepts, followed by an analysis of the profound influence of these two concepts on Chinese Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

16 pages, 2144 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oneself as Another: Yantraputraka Metaphors in Buddhist Literature

by You Zhao

Religions 2023, 14(4), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040503 - 05 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1431

Abstract

While Buddhist teachings deny the presence of a stable, unchanging self, they must still make sense of human agency. In this article, I look through metaphors of mechanical men in Buddhist literature, which inform us of attempts to tackle the problem by resorting [...] Read more.

While Buddhist teachings deny the presence of a stable, unchanging self, they must still make sense of human agency. In this article, I look through metaphors of mechanical men in Buddhist literature, which inform us of attempts to tackle the problem by resorting to figurative speech. With a selection of examples, we shall see not only a basic rationale of these metaphors, as well as the dynamics of their usage in Buddhist texts against different doctrinal backgrounds, but also their meta-philosophical role in penetrating through the agent-oriented “universe of discourse”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

29 pages, 1100 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monastics and the Medieval Chinese Buddhist Mythos: A Study of Narrative Elements in Daoxuan’s Ji shenzhou sanbao gantong lu (Collected Record of Miracles Relating to the Three Jewels in China)

by Nelson Elliott Landry

Religions 2023, 14(4), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040490 - 04 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1600

Abstract

Miracle tales are didactic stories related to Buddhist figures, objects, and places that describe supernormal occurrences brought about by acts of great piety and fervent devotion. They present the audience with concrete examples of the workings of karma, while simultaneously setting verifiable historical [...] Read more.

Miracle tales are didactic stories related to Buddhist figures, objects, and places that describe supernormal occurrences brought about by acts of great piety and fervent devotion. They present the audience with concrete examples of the workings of karma, while simultaneously setting verifiable historical precedents in a bid to prove the religious efficacy of Buddhism in China. These were also historiographical works, providing a wealth of detail regarding not only religious life and belief in China, but also local lore, politics, architectural trends, and much more. This paper will focus on a text called the Ji shenzhou sanbao gantong lu 集神州三寶感通錄 (T2106), a collection of miracle tales compiled by the seventh-century scholar-monk, Daoxuan 道宣 (596–667 CE). This text is a collection of narratives drawn from literary and epigraphy sources, as well as orally transmitted stories. As a Buddhist figurehead and as the author of many seminal historiographical works, Daoxuan played a central role in the overall localization of this tradition in China. Bearing this in mind, this paper seeks to interpret the “collective images” presented in Daoxuan’s collection of miracle tales, those representations of the miraculous and the supernormal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

25 pages, 1942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Patriarchal Lineages of Vinaya Transmission Starting with Upāli: Narratives and Interpretations in the Vinaya School 律宗 in China and Japan

by Weilin Wu

Religions 2023, 14(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040464 - 31 Mar 2023

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Abstract

In both Pāli and Chinese vinaya literature, there are various patriarchal lineages of vinaya transmission in which Upāli is honored as the first patriarch. These lineages that start with Upāli can be categorized into two types. The first type is found mainly in [...] Read more.

In both Pāli and Chinese vinaya literature, there are various patriarchal lineages of vinaya transmission in which Upāli is honored as the first patriarch. These lineages that start with Upāli can be categorized into two types. The first type is found mainly in Indian vinaya texts, including two groups of texts: the Mohe sengqi lü 摩訶僧祇律 (Skt. Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya), and the Samantapāsādikā, a Pāli Vinaya commentary, as well as its parallel Chinese version, the Shanjianlü piposha 善見律毗婆沙. The second type was constructed by Chinese Vinaya school masters in the Northern Song dynasty, who aimed to establish an orthodox Indian origin for the Vinaya school. After their introduction into China and Japan, the first type of lineages experienced transformation in later Vinaya school works composed by medieval Chinese and Japanese Buddhist monks. A comparative philological study on the Samantapāsādikā and Shanjianlü piposha shows a “mistranslated” Tanwude 曇無德 (Skt. Dharmagupta) in the patriarchal lineage of vinaya transmission in the Shanjianlü piposha, the parallel of which is “Buddharakkhita” in the Pāli sources. Further investigation on the Vinaya school reveals that both Dingbin 定賓 and Gyōnen 凝然, monks from the Vinaya school in later periods, identified the Shanjianlü piposha as a commentary on the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, and they consequently considered the patriarchal lineage in the Shanjianlü piposha as the patriarchal genealogy of the Dharmaguptaka school, with the purpose of establishing an orthodoxy of the Vinaya school that could be traced back to Upāli. Furthermore, in the genealogy in the Mohe sengqi lü, Gyōnen associated the master Fahu 法護 with the Dharmaguptaka school. Yuanzhao 元照, an eminent Vinaya school monk, criticized the second type of lineages as false construction. Instead, he established a patriarchal lineage that starts with Tanwude, the editor and compiler of the Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, for the Chinese Vinaya school. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

17 pages, 1021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Story of Sadāprarudita’s Search for Dharma and the Worship of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra from India to Sixth-Century China

by Wen Zhao

Religions 2023, 14(3), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030410 - 17 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1203

Abstract

The story of bodhisattva Sadāprarudita’s search for Dharma in the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra has served to successfully shape the characters of the Dharma seeker, bodhisattva Sadāprarudita, and the Dharma preacher (dharmabhāṇakas), bodhisattva Dharmodgata. This narrative carried much information about the veneration of [...] Read more.

The story of bodhisattva Sadāprarudita’s search for Dharma in the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra has served to successfully shape the characters of the Dharma seeker, bodhisattva Sadāprarudita, and the Dharma preacher (dharmabhāṇakas), bodhisattva Dharmodgata. This narrative carried much information about the veneration of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in Indic contexts, and it also enthused Chinese Buddhists of the sixth century CE to create the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra written in gold calligraphy. Emperor Wu of the Liang organized pañcavārṣika assemblies centred on the lectures and veneration of the gold-calligraphy Sūtra, and the Tiantai master Huisi made a vow to create such a scroll around the same time. In the relevant accounts, Chinese preachers are always associated with the Dharma preacher Dharmodgata in the narrative, which in turn enhanced their authority in the contexts in which they operated. The narrative thus helped to promote the transmission of the text across the cultural boundaries in which the Dharma preacher, as the embodied agent of the Prajñāpāramitā text, played a significant role. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Narrative Literature)

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