Research

14 pages, 2810 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inhibitory Potential of Polyclonal Camel Antibodies against New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase-1 (NDM-1)

by Rahma Ben Abderrazek, Sarra Chammam, Ayoub Ksouri, Mariagrazia Perilli, Sayda Dhaouadi, Ines Mdini, Zakaria Benlasfar, Gianfranco Amicosante, Balkiss Bouhaouala-Zahar and Alessandra Piccirilli

Molecules 2020, 25(19), 4453; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25194453 - 28 Sep 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2298

Abstract

New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) is the most prevalent type of metallo-β-lactamase, able to hydrolyze almost all antibiotics of the β-lactam group, leading to multidrug-resistant bacteria. To date, there are no clinically relevant inhibitors to fight NDM-1. The use of dromedary polyclonal antibody inhibitors [...] Read more.

New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) is the most prevalent type of metallo-β-lactamase, able to hydrolyze almost all antibiotics of the β-lactam group, leading to multidrug-resistant bacteria. To date, there are no clinically relevant inhibitors to fight NDM-1. The use of dromedary polyclonal antibody inhibitors against NDM-1 represents a promising new class of molecules with inhibitory activity. In the current study, immunoreactivities of dromedary Immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotypes containing heavy-chain and conventional antibodies were tested after successful immunization of dromedary using increasing amounts of the recombinant NDM-1 enzyme. Inhibition kinetic assays, performed using a spectrophotometric method with nitrocefin as a reporter substrate, demonstrated that IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 were able to inhibit not only the hydrolytic activity of NDM-1 but also Verona integron-encoded metallo-β-lactamase (VIM-1) (subclass B1) and L1 metallo-β-lactamase (L1) (subclass B3) with inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀₎ values ranging from 100 to 0.04 μM. Investigations on the ability of IgG subclasses to reduce the growth of recombinant Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)/codon plus cells containing the recombinant plasmid expressing NDM-1, L1, or VIM-1 showed that the addition of IgGs (4 and 8 mg/L) to the cell culture was unable to restore the susceptibility of carbapenems. Interestingly, IgGs were able to interact with NDM-1, L1, and VIM-1 when tested on the periplasm extract of each cultured strain. The inhibitory concentration was in the micromolar range for all β-lactams tested. A visualization of the 3D structural basis using the three enzyme Protein Data Bank (PDB) files supports preliminarily the recorded inhibition of the three MBLs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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14 pages, 2231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, In Silico and In Vitro Evaluation of Some Flavone Derivatives for Acetylcholinesterase and BACE-1 Inhibitory Activity

by Thai-Son Tran, Thanh-Dao Tran, The-Huan Tran, Thanh-Tan Mai, Ngoc-Le Nguyen, Khac-Minh Thai and Minh-Tri Le

Molecules 2020, 25(18), 4064; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184064 - 05 Sep 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4310

Abstract

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and β-secretase (BACE-1) have become attractive therapeutic targets for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Flavones are flavonoid derivatives with various bioactive effects, including AChE and BACE-1 inhibition. In the present work, a series of 14 flavone derivatives was synthesized in relatively high yields [...] Read more.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and β-secretase (BACE-1) have become attractive therapeutic targets for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Flavones are flavonoid derivatives with various bioactive effects, including AChE and BACE-1 inhibition. In the present work, a series of 14 flavone derivatives was synthesized in relatively high yields (35–85%). Six of the synthetic flavones (B4, B5, B6, B8, D6 and D7) had completely new structures. The AChE and BACE-1 inhibitory activities were tested, giving pIC₅₀ 3.47–4.59 (AChE) and 4.15–5.80 (BACE-1). Three compounds (B3, D5 and D6) exhibited the highest biological effects on both AChE and BACE-1. A molecular docking investigation was conducted to explain the experimental results. These molecules could be employed for further studies to discover new structures with dual action on both AChE and BACE-1 that could serve as novel therapies for AD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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18 pages, 2968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Antimicrobial Activity and Molecular Docking of Novel Thiourea Derivatives Tagged with Thiadiazole, Imidazole and Triazine Moieties as Potential DNA Gyrase and Topoisomerase IV Inhibitors

by Heba E. Hashem, Abd El-Galil E. Amr, Eman S. Nossier, Elsayed A. Elsayed and Eman M. Azmy

Molecules 2020, 25(12), 2766; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25122766 - 15 Jun 2020

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 4229

Abstract

To develop new antimicrobial agents, a series of novel thiourea derivatives incorporated with different moieties 2–13 was designed and synthesized and their biological activities were evaluated. Compounds 7a, 7b and 8 exhibited excellent antimicrobial activity against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and [...] Read more.

To develop new antimicrobial agents, a series of novel thiourea derivatives incorporated with different moieties 2–13 was designed and synthesized and their biological activities were evaluated. Compounds 7a, 7b and 8 exhibited excellent antimicrobial activity against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and the fungal Aspergillus flavus with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranged from 0.95 ± 0.22 to 3.25 ± 1.00 μg/mL. Furthermore, cytotoxicity studies against MCF-7 cells revealed that compounds 7a and 7b were the most potent with IC₅₀ values of 10.17 ± 0.65 and 11.59 ± 0.59 μM, respectively. On the other hand, the tested compounds were less toxic against normal kidney epithelial cell lines (Vero cells). The in vitro enzyme inhibition assay of 8 displayed excellent inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli DNA B gyrase and moderate one against E. coli Topoisomerase IV (IC₅₀ = 0.33 ± 1.25 and 19.72 ± 1.00 µM, respectively) in comparison with novobiocin (IC₅₀ values 0.28 ± 1.45 and 10.65 ± 1.02 µM, respectively). Finally, the molecular docking was done to position compound 8 into the E. coli DNA B and Topoisomerase IV active pockets to explore the probable binding conformation. In summary, compound 8 may serve as a potential dual E. coli DNA B and Topoisomerase IV inhibitor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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29 pages, 4798 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Multitarget Anticancer Agents Based on Histone Deacetylase and Protein Kinase CK2 Inhibitors

by Regina Martínez, Bruno Di Geronimo, Miryam Pastor, José María Zapico, Claire Coderch, Rostyslav Panchuk, Nadia Skorokhyd, Maciej Maslyk, Ana Ramos and Beatriz de Pascual-Teresa

Molecules 2020, 25(7), 1497; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071497 - 25 Mar 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3776

Abstract

The design of multitarget drugs (MTDs) has become an innovative approach for the search of effective treatments in complex diseases such as cancer. In this work, we communicate our efforts in the design of multi-targeting histone deacetylase (HDAC) and protein kinase CK2 inhibitors [...] Read more.

The design of multitarget drugs (MTDs) has become an innovative approach for the search of effective treatments in complex diseases such as cancer. In this work, we communicate our efforts in the design of multi-targeting histone deacetylase (HDAC) and protein kinase CK2 inhibitors as a novel therapeutic strategy against cancer. Using tetrabromobenzotriazole (TBB) and 2-dimethylamino-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-benzimidazole (DMAT) as scaffolds for CK2 inhibition, and a hydroxamate to coordinate the zinc atom present in the active site of HDAC (zinc binding group, ZBG), new multitarget inhibitors have been designed and synthesized. According to the in vitro assays, N-Hydroxy-6-(4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-2-(dimethylamino)-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)hexanamide (11b) is the most interesting compound, with IC₅₀ values of 0.66; 1.46 and 3.67 µM. for HDAC6; HDAC1 and CK2; respectively. Cellular assays on different cancer cell lines rendered promising results for N-Hydroxy-8-(4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-2-(dimethylamino)-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)octanamide (11d). This inhibitor presented the highest cytotoxic activity, proapoptotic capability, and the best mitochondria-targeting and multidrug-circumventing properties, thus being the most promising drug candidate for further in vivo studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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27 pages, 8226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Phenyl Urea Derivatives as IDO1 Inhibitors

by Chuan Zhou, Fangfang Lai, Li Sheng, Xiaoguang Chen, Yan Li and Zhiqiang Feng

Molecules 2020, 25(6), 1447; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25061447 - 23 Mar 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3158

Abstract

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) is a heme-containing intracellular enzyme that catalyzes the first and rate-determining step of tryptophan metabolism and is an important immunotherapeutic target for the treatment of cancer. In this study, we designed and synthesized a new series of compounds as [...] Read more.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) is a heme-containing intracellular enzyme that catalyzes the first and rate-determining step of tryptophan metabolism and is an important immunotherapeutic target for the treatment of cancer. In this study, we designed and synthesized a new series of compounds as potential IDO1 inhibitors. These compounds were then evaluated for inhibitory activity against IDO1 and tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO). Among them, the three phenyl urea derivatives i12, i23, i24 as showed potent IDO1 inhibition, with IC₅₀ values of 0.1–0.6 μM and no compound exhibited TDO inhibitory activity. Using molecular docking, we predicted the binding mode of compound i12 within IDO1. Compound i12 was further investigated by determining its in vivo pharmacokinetic profile and anti-tumor efficacy. The pharmacokinetic study revealed that compound i12 had satisfactory properties in mice, with moderate plasma clearance (22.45 mL/min/kg), acceptable half-life (11.2 h) and high oral bioavailability (87.4%). Compound i12 orally administered at 15 mg/kg daily showed tumor growth inhibition (TGI) of 40.5% in a B16F10 subcutaneous xenograft model and 30 mg/kg daily showed TGI of 34.3% in a PAN02 subcutaneous xenograft model. In addition, the body weight of i12-treated mice showed no obvious reduction compared with the control group. Overall, compound i12 is a potent lead compound for developing IDO1 inhibitors and anti-tumor agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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24 pages, 8771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Pyrimethamine Drug Resistance Mechanism via Combined Molecular Dynamics and Dynamic Residue Network Analysis

by Arnold Amusengeri, Rolland Bantar Tata and Özlem Tastan Bishop

Molecules 2020, 25(4), 904; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25040904 - 18 Feb 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4920

Abstract

In this era of precision medicine, insights into the resistance mechanism of drugs are integral for the development of potent therapeutics. Here, we sought to understand the contribution of four point mutations (N51I, C59R, S108N, and I164L) within the active site of the [...] Read more.

In this era of precision medicine, insights into the resistance mechanism of drugs are integral for the development of potent therapeutics. Here, we sought to understand the contribution of four point mutations (N51I, C59R, S108N, and I164L) within the active site of the malaria parasite enzyme dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) towards the resistance of the antimalarial drug pyrimethamine. Homology modeling was used to obtain full-length models of wild type (WT) and mutant DHFR. Molecular docking was employed to dock pyrimethamine onto the generated structures. Subsequent all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and binding free-energy computations highlighted that pyrimethamine’s stability and affinity inversely relates to the number of mutations within its binding site and, hence, resistance severity. Generally, mutations led to reduced binding affinity to pyrimethamine and increased conformational plasticity of DHFR. Next, dynamic residue network analysis (DRN) was applied to determine the impact of mutations and pyrimethamine binding on communication dispositions of DHFR residues. DRN revealed residues with distinctive communication profiles, distinguishing WT from drug-resistant mutants as well as pyrimethamine-bound from pyrimethamine-free models. Our results provide a new perspective on the understanding of mutation-induced drug resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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18 pages, 4963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of New Series of 2-C-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-Pyrimidines and Their Evaluation as Inhibitors of Some Glycoenzymes

by Eszter Szennyes, Gyöngyi Gyémánt, László Somsák and Éva Bokor

Molecules 2020, 25(3), 701; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030701 - 06 Feb 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2418

Abstract

Despite the substantial interest in C-glycosyl heterocycles as mimetics of biologically active native glycans, the appearance of C-glycopyranosyl derivatives of six-membered heterocycles, both in synthetic and biological contexts, is rather scarce. As part of our ongoing research program aimed at preparing [...] Read more.

Despite the substantial interest in C-glycosyl heterocycles as mimetics of biologically active native glycans, the appearance of C-glycopyranosyl derivatives of six-membered heterocycles, both in synthetic and biological contexts, is rather scarce. As part of our ongoing research program aimed at preparing hitherto barely known 2-C-glycopyranosyl pyrimidines, the goal of the present study was to synthesize new 5-mono- and multiply substituted derivatives of this compound class. Thus, 2-C-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-5,6-disubstituted-pyrimidin-4(3H)-ones and 4-amino-2-C-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-5,6-disubstituted-pyrimidines were prepared by base-mediated cyclocondensations of O-perbenzylated and O-unprotected C-(β-D-glucopyranosyl) formamidine hydrochlorides with methylenemalonic acid derivatives. The 2-C-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-5-substituted-pyrimidines were obtained from the same amidine precursors upon treatment with vinamidinium salts. The deprotected derivatives of these pyrimidines were tested as inhibitors of some glycoenzymes. None of them showed inhibitory activity towards glycogen phosphorylase and α- and β-glucosidase enzymes, but some members of the sets exhibited moderate inhibition against bovine liver β-galactosidase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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19 pages, 2165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Depth Analysis of Kinase Cross Screening Data to Identify CAMKK2 Inhibitory Scaffolds

by Sean N. O’Byrne, John W. Scott, Joseph R. Pilotte, André da S. Santiago, Christopher G. Langendorf, Jonathan S. Oakhill, Benjamin J. Eduful, Rafael M. Couñago, Carrow I. Wells, William J. Zuercher, Timothy M. Willson and David H. Drewry

Molecules 2020, 25(2), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25020325 - 13 Jan 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6080

Abstract

The calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CAMKK2) activates CAMK1, CAMK4, AMPK, and AKT, leading to numerous physiological responses. The deregulation of CAMKK2 is linked to several diseases, suggesting the utility of CAMKK2 inhibitors for oncological, metabolic and inflammatory indications. In this work, we [...] Read more.

The calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CAMKK2) activates CAMK1, CAMK4, AMPK, and AKT, leading to numerous physiological responses. The deregulation of CAMKK2 is linked to several diseases, suggesting the utility of CAMKK2 inhibitors for oncological, metabolic and inflammatory indications. In this work, we demonstrate that STO-609, frequently described as a selective inhibitor for CAMKK2, potently inhibits a significant number of other kinases. Through an analysis of literature and public databases, we have identified other potent CAMKK2 inhibitors and verified their activities in differential scanning fluorimetry and enzyme inhibition assays. These inhibitors are potential starting points for the development of selective CAMKK2 inhibitors and will lead to tools that delineate the roles of this kinase in disease biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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13 pages, 2064 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Multi-Target Performance of Mitochondriotropic Antioxidants against the Pivotal Alzheimer’s Disease Pathophysiological Hallmarks

by Sofia Benfeito, Carlos Fernandes, Santiago Vilar, Fernando Remião, Eugenio Uriarte and Fernanda Borges

Molecules 2020, 25(2), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25020276 - 09 Jan 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3714

Abstract

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease featuring progressive and degenerative neurological impairments resulting in memory loss and cognitive decline. The specific mechanisms underlying AD are still poorly understood, but it is suggested that a deficiency in the brain neurotransmitter acetylcholine, [...] Read more.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease featuring progressive and degenerative neurological impairments resulting in memory loss and cognitive decline. The specific mechanisms underlying AD are still poorly understood, but it is suggested that a deficiency in the brain neurotransmitter acetylcholine, the deposition of insoluble aggregates of fibrillar β-amyloid 1–42 (Aβ₄₂), and iron and glutamate accumulation play an important role in the disease progress. Despite the existence of approved cholinergic drugs, none of them demonstrated effectiveness in modifying disease progression. Accordingly, the development of new chemical entities acting on more than one target is attracting progressively more attention as they can tackle intricate network targets and modulate their effects. Within this endeavor, a series of mitochondriotropic antioxidants inspired on hydroxycinnamic (HCA’s) scaffold were synthesized, screened toward cholinesterases and evaluated as neuroprotectors in a differentiated human SH-SY5Y cell line. From the series, compounds 7 and 11 with a 10-carbon chain can be viewed as multi-target leads for the treatment of AD, as they act as dual and bifunctional cholinesterase inhibitors and prevent the neuronal damage caused by diverse aggressors related to protein misfolding and aggregation, iron accumulation and excitotoxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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20 pages, 1232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

2-Arylidene-1-indandiones as Pleiotropic Agents with Antioxidant and Inhibitory Enzymes Activities

by Olympia Kouzi, Eleni Pontiki and Dimitra Hadjipavlou-Litina

Molecules 2019, 24(23), 4411; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24234411 - 03 Dec 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3263

Abstract

Indandiones are a relatively new group of compounds presenting a wide range of biological activities. The synthesis of these compounds was performed via a Knoevenagel reaction between an aldehyde and 1,3-indandione and were obtained with a yield up to 54%. IR, ¹H-Nucleic [...] Read more.

Indandiones are a relatively new group of compounds presenting a wide range of biological activities. The synthesis of these compounds was performed via a Knoevenagel reaction between an aldehyde and 1,3-indandione and were obtained with a yield up to 54%. IR, ¹H-Nucleic Magnetic Resonance (NMR), ¹³C-NMR, LC/MS ESI⁺ and elemental analysis were used for the confirmation of the structures of the novel derivatives. Lipophilicity values of compounds were calculated theoretically and experimentally by reversed chromatography method as values R_M. The novel derivatives were studied through in vitro and in vivo experiments for their activity as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents and as inhibitors of lipoxygenase, trypsin, and thrombin. The inhibition of the carrageenin-induced paw edema (CPE) was also determined for representative structures. In the above series of experiments, we find that all the compounds showed moderate to satisfying interaction with the stable DPPH free radical in relation to the concentration and the time 2-arylidene-1-indandione (10) was the strongest. We observed moderate or very low antioxidant activities for selected compounds in the decolorization assay with ABTS^+•. Most of the compounds showed high anti-lipid peroxidation of linoleic acid induced by AAPH.2-arylidene-1-indandione (7) showed a strongly inhibited soybean LOX. Only 2-arylidene-1-indandione (3) showed moderate scavenging activity of superoxide anion, whereas 2-arylidene-1-indandione (8) and 2-arylidene-1-indandione (9) showed very strong inhibition on proteolysis. 2-arylidene-1-indandione (8) highly inhibited serine protease thrombin. 2-arylidene-1-indandiones (7, 8 and 9) can be used as lead multifunctional molecules. The compounds were active for the inhibition of the CPE (30–57%) with 2-arylidene-1-indandione (1) being the most potent (57%). According to the predicted results a great number of the derivatives can cross the Blood–Brain Barrier (BBB), act in CNS and easily transported, diffused, and absorbed. Efforts are conducted a) to correlate quantitatively the in vitro/in vivo results with the most important physicochemical properties of the structural components of the molecules and b) to clarify the correlation of actions among them to propose a possible mechanism of action. Hydration energy as E_HYDR and highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) better describe their antioxidant profile whereas the lipophilicity as R_M values governs the in vivo anti-inflammatory activity. Docking studies are performed and showed that soybean LOX oxidation was prevented by blocking into the hydrophobic domain the substrates to the active site. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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17 pages, 6386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel C7-Substituted Coumarins as Selective Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors: Discovery, Synthesis and Theoretical Simulation

by Dong Wang, Ren-Yuan Hong, Mengyao Guo, Yi Liu, Nianhang Chen, Xun Li and De-Xin Kong

Molecules 2019, 24(21), 4003; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24214003 - 05 Nov 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3323

Abstract

There is a continued need to develop new selective human monoamine oxidase (hMAO) inhibitors that could be beneficial for the treatment of neurological diseases. However, hMAOs are closely related with high sequence identity and structural similarity, which hinders the development [...] Read more.

There is a continued need to develop new selective human monoamine oxidase (hMAO) inhibitors that could be beneficial for the treatment of neurological diseases. However, hMAOs are closely related with high sequence identity and structural similarity, which hinders the development of selective MAO inhibitors. “Three-Dimensional Biologically Relevant Spectrum (BRS-3D)” method developed by our group has demonstrated its effectiveness in subtype selectivity studies of receptor and enzyme ligands. Here, we report a series of novel C7-substituted coumarins, either synthesized or commercially purchased, which were identified as selective hMAO inhibitors. Most of the compounds demonstrated strong activities with IC₅₀ values (half-inhibitory concentration) ranging from sub-micromolar to nanomolar. Compounds, FR1 and SP1, were identified as the most selective hMAO-A inhibitors, with IC₅₀ values of 1.5 nM (selectivity index (SI) < −2.82) and 19 nM (SI < −2.42), respectively. FR4 and FR5 showed the most potent hMAO-B inhibitory activity, with IC₅₀ of 18 nM and 15 nM (SI > 2.74 and SI > 2.82). Docking calculations and molecular dynamic simulations were performed to elucidate the selectivity preference and SAR profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

20 pages, 8886 KiB

Open AccessReview

Methyltransferase Inhibitors: Competing with, or Exploiting the Bound Cofactor

by Renato Ferreira de Freitas, Danton Ivanochko and Matthieu Schapira

Molecules 2019, 24(24), 4492; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24244492 - 08 Dec 2019

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5316

Abstract

Protein methyltransferases (PMTs) are enzymes involved in epigenetic mechanisms, DNA repair, and other cellular machineries critical to cellular identity and function, and are an important target class in chemical biology and drug discovery. Central to the enzymatic reaction is the transfer of a [...] Read more.

Protein methyltransferases (PMTs) are enzymes involved in epigenetic mechanisms, DNA repair, and other cellular machineries critical to cellular identity and function, and are an important target class in chemical biology and drug discovery. Central to the enzymatic reaction is the transfer of a methyl group from the cofactor S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) to a substrate protein. Here we review how the essentiality of SAM for catalysis is exploited by chemical inhibitors. Occupying the cofactor binding pocket to compete with SAM can be hindered by the hydrophilic nature of this site, but structural studies of compounds now in the clinic revealed that inhibitors could either occupy juxtaposed pockets to overlap minimally, but sufficiently with the bound cofactor, or induce large conformational remodeling leading to a more druggable binding site. Rather than competing with the cofactor, other inhibitors compete with the substrate and rely on bound SAM, either to allosterically stabilize the substrate binding site, or for direct SAM-inhibitor interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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20 pages, 10960 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Bcr-Abl Allosteric Inhibitors: Where We Are and Where We Are Going to

by Francesca Carofiglio, Daniela Trisciuzzi, Nicola Gambacorta, Francesco Leonetti, Angela Stefanachi and Orazio Nicolotti

Molecules 2020, 25(18), 4210; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184210 - 14 Sep 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4753

Abstract

The fusion oncoprotein Bcr-Abl is an aberrant tyrosine kinase responsible for chronic myeloid leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The auto-inhibition regulatory module observed in the progenitor kinase c-Abl is lost in the aberrant Bcr-Abl, because of the lack of the N-myristoylated cap [...] Read more.

The fusion oncoprotein Bcr-Abl is an aberrant tyrosine kinase responsible for chronic myeloid leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The auto-inhibition regulatory module observed in the progenitor kinase c-Abl is lost in the aberrant Bcr-Abl, because of the lack of the N-myristoylated cap able to bind the myristoyl binding pocket also conserved in the Bcr-Abl kinase domain. A way to overcome the occurrence of resistance phenomena frequently observed for Bcr-Abl orthosteric drugs is the rational design of allosteric ligands approaching the so-called myristoyl binding pocket. The discovery of these allosteric inhibitors although very difficult and extremely challenging, represents a valuable option to minimize drug resistance, mostly due to the occurrence of mutations more frequently affecting orthosteric pockets, and to enhance target selectivity with lower off-target effects. In this perspective, we will elucidate at a molecular level the structural bases behind the Bcr-Abl allosteric control and will show how artificial intelligence can be effective to drive the automated de novo design towards off-patent regions of the chemical space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors)

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