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Minerals
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Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment
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Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2024) | Viewed by 4482

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wei Dang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China
Interests: shale oil/gas geology; reservoir characterization; pore structure; oil/gas storage; oil/gas content evaluation; machine learning application; shale minerals and lithosfacies
Dr. Tao Hu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing 102249, China
Interests: petroleum geology ; shale oil micro-migration; shale oil enrichment mechanism
Dr. Shaohua Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China
Interests: basin analysis; petroleum geology; tectonics; geochronology
Prof. Dr. Haikuan Nie

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Petroleum Exploration and Production Research Institute, SINOPEC, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: shale gas; unconventional oil and gas; gas reservoir characterization; gas enrichment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the past, organic-rich shale was ignored during oil/gas exploration, as it was considered to be just the source rock. But now, it has become one of the most important oil/gas exploration targets in the world because people realize that it can serve as not only the source rock, but also the reservoir rock. After the generation of oil and gas, only part of them is expelled, and most of the generated oil and gas are retained and stored in the pore space between minerals or on the surface of minerals. Although our understanding of oil/gas storage in shale pore space is gradually becoming clearer, our understanding of the mineralogical and lithological control of shale oil/gas enrichment still remains ambiguous. For example, (1) how, and to what extent do minerals affect the thermal evolution of organic matter and the formation of oil and gas? (2) How do minerals interact with oil and gas molecules and affect the storage and migration of oil and gas within shale or between shale and other adjacent rocks? (3) Which type of lithofacies is favorable for oil and gas enrichment, and what is the enrichment mechanism? (4) How do we classify lithofacies and evaluate its properties on a large scale, such as on a meter or 10-meter scale, to better guide the selection of fracturing formation? Addressing the above issues will help researchers understand shale oil/gas enrichment mechanisms and improve the effectiveness of shale oil/gas exploration and development.

This Special Issue encourages authors to submit original and novel studies to improve our understanding of the mineralogical and lithological control of shale oil/gas enrichment. We welcome both original research and review papers.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • New technological advances for minerals and lithology identification;
  • Application of machine learning in evaluating the shale properties;
  • Physical and chemical interactions between oil/gas, water, and shale;
  • Storage mechanisms and characterization of oil, gas, and water in shale pore systems;
  • New advances for shale oil/gas content evaluation;
  • Lithology/lithofacies identification and characterization;
  • Effect of minerals and lithology or lithofacies on shale oil and gas enrichment;
  • Shale oil/gas enrichment mechanisms;
  • Shale oil/gas sweet-spot identification and criteria.

Dr. Wei Dang
Dr. Tao Hu
Dr. Shaohua Zhang
Prof. Dr. Nie Haikuan
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • shale oil/gas
  • minerals
  • lithology
  • storage
  • enrichment

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

28 pages, 18214 KiB  
Article
Coevolutionary Diagenesis in Tight Sandstone and Shale Reservoirs within Lacustrine-Delta Systems: A Case Study from the Lianggaoshan Formation in the Eastern Sichuan Basin, Southwest China
by Nan Jiang, Xingzhi Wang, Huanhuan Zhou, Long Luo, Xianfeng Tan, Yixin Zhu, Jon Gluyas, Jianping Liu, Xuanbo Gao, Zhouling Li, Jia Wang, Xin Yu, Shanzhen Tan and Yiting Gu
Minerals 2024, 14(4), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14040335 - 25 Mar 2024
Viewed by 525
Abstract
Tight sandstone and shale oil and gas are the key targets of unconventional oil and gas exploration in the lake-delta sedimentary systems of China. Understanding the coevolutionary diagenesis of sandstone and shale reservoirs is crucial for the prediction of reservoir quality, ahead of [...] Read more.
Tight sandstone and shale oil and gas are the key targets of unconventional oil and gas exploration in the lake-delta sedimentary systems of China. Understanding the coevolutionary diagenesis of sandstone and shale reservoirs is crucial for the prediction of reservoir quality, ahead of drilling, in such systems. Thin-section description, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), fluid inclusion analysis, porosity and permeability tests, high-pressure mercury intrusion (HPMI) measurements and nuclear magnetic resonance tests (NMR) were used to reveal the coevolutionary diagenetic mechanisms of a sandstone and shale reservoir in the Lianggaoshan Formation of the Eastern Sichuan Basin, China. The thermally mature, organic-matter-rich, dark shale of layer3 is the most important source rock within the Lianggaoshan Formation. It started to generate abundant organic acids at the early stage of mesodiagenesis and produced abundant hydrocarbons in the early Cretaceous. Porewater with high concentrations of Ca2+ and CO32− entered the sandstone reservoir from dark shale as the shale was compacted during burial. Potassium feldspar dissolution at the boundary of the sandstone was more pervasive than at the center of the sandstone. The K+ released by potassium feldspar dissolution migrated from the sandstone into mudstone. Grain-rimming chlorite coats occurred mainly in the center of the sandstone. Some silica exported from the shale was imported by the sandstone boundary and precipitated close to the shale/sandstone boundary. Some intergranular dissolution pores and intercrystal pores were formed in the shale due to dissolution during the early stages of mesodiagenesis. Chlorite coats, which precipitated during eodiagenesis, were beneficial to the protection of primary pore space in the sandstone. Calcite cement, which preferentially precipitated at the boundary of sandstone, was not conducive to reservoir development. Dissolution mainly occurred at the early stage of mesodiagenesis due to organic acids derived from the dark shale. Calcite cement could also protect some primary pores from compaction and release pore space following dissolution. The porosity of sandstone and shale was mainly controlled by the thickness of sandstone and dark shale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment)
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24 pages, 7937 KiB  
Article
Thermal Maturity Constraint Effect and Development Model of Shale Pore Structure: A Case Study of Longmaxi Formation Shale in Southern Sichuan Basin, China
by Xuewen Shi, Wei Wu, Liang Xu, Yingzi Yin, Yuran Yang, Jia Liu, Xue Yang, Yanyou Li, Qiuzi Wu, Kesu Zhong and Yonghui Wu
Minerals 2024, 14(2), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14020163 - 02 Feb 2024
Viewed by 696
Abstract
When the thermal maturity of the Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin is too high, the pore structure of shale becomes poor. Therefore, to investigate the effect of organic matter thermal maturity on shale pore structure, a study was conducted. Using the [...] Read more.
When the thermal maturity of the Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin is too high, the pore structure of shale becomes poor. Therefore, to investigate the effect of organic matter thermal maturity on shale pore structure, a study was conducted. Using the Longmaxi Formation shale in the southern Sichuan Basin as an example, the intrinsic relationship between shale porosity, pore structure parameters, organic matter laser Raman maturity, and organic matter graphitization degree was examined using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, particle helium porosity measurement, organic matter micro-laser Raman spectroscopy, and gas adsorption experiments. The results indicate that thermal maturity is the macroscopic manifestation of the graphitization degree of organic matter, and the correlation coefficient between the two is 0.85. A thermal maturity of 3.5% (with a corresponding organic matter graphitization degree of 17%) aligns with the highest values of shale porosity, pore volume, and pore-specific surface area across all pore size conditions. The evolution model of shale pore structure can be divided into two stages. The first stage is characterized by a thermal maturity between 2.0% and 3.5% (with a corresponding degree of graphitization of organic matter between 0% and 17%). During this stage, the number and connectivity of micro-macropores increase with increasing thermal maturity. The second stage is marked by a thermal maturity between 3.5% and 4.3% (with a corresponding degree of graphitization of organic matter between 17% and 47.32%). Basement faults are present, leading to abnormally high thermal maturity, poor preservation conditions, continuous generation of micropores, better connectivity, and a reduced number of pores. Medium macropores with good connectivity suffer from gas loss in the fracture network, leading to the collapse and disappearance of pores. The results mentioned in the statement have an important guiding role in the efficient exploration of shale gas in the Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment)
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23 pages, 6703 KiB  
Article
Pore Structure and Migration Ability of Deep Shale Reservoirs in the Southern Sichuan Basin
by Jianfa Wu, Qiuzi Wu, Liang Xu, Yuran Yang, Jia Liu, Yingzi Yin, Zhenxue Jiang, Xianglu Tang and Huan Miao
Minerals 2024, 14(1), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14010100 - 16 Jan 2024
Viewed by 750
Abstract
The migration phenomenon of deep shale gas is a subject that has yet to be fully comprehended, specifically regarding the migration ability of deep shale gas. This study focuses on the Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin, utilizing it as an example. [...] Read more.
The migration phenomenon of deep shale gas is a subject that has yet to be fully comprehended, specifically regarding the migration ability of deep shale gas. This study focuses on the Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin, utilizing it as an example. Various experimental techniques, such as temperature-driven nitrogen and carbon dioxide adsorption, high-pressure mercury intrusion, XRD, and TOC analysis, are employed. The goal is to analyze the pore structure and fractal characteristics of the Longmaxi Formation shale. Additionally, the study aims to calculate its Knudsen number based on parameters like temperature gradient and pressure coefficient. The migration ability of the Longmaxi Formation shale in southern Sichuan Basin is also discussed. The results show the following: (1) The pore volume distribution of the Longmaxi Formation shale in the study area ranges from 0.0131 to 0.0364 cm3/g. Mesopores contribute approximately 56% of the pore volume, followed by micropores with a contribution rate of about 26%, and macropores contributing approximately 18%. Additionally, the Longmaxi Formation shale exhibits strong heterogeneity, with the fractal dimension (D1) of mesopores ranging from 2.452 to 2.8548, with an average of 2.6833, and the fractal dimension (D2) of macropores ranging from 2.9626 to 2.9786, averaging 2.9707. (2) The fractal dimensions of shale were significantly influenced by organic matter, inorganic minerals, and pore structure parameters. D1 and D2 were positively correlated with TOC, clay mineral content, and specific surface area, while exhibiting negative correlation with quartz. However, the correlations with calcite content, pore volume, and average pore size were not significant. (3) The proportion of pores satisfying Darcy flow in the Longmaxi Formation shale was approximately 3.7%–11.8%, with an average of 6.6%. Consequently, the migration capability of shale gas can be calculated using Darcy’s law. Furthermore, the migration capability of shale gas is controlled by D2, specifically the surface area, and the connectivity of macropores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment)
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22 pages, 7955 KiB  
Article
Paleoenvironmental Characteristics of Lacustrine Shale and Its Impact on Organic Matter Enrichment in Funing Formation of Subei Basin
by Feng Zhu, Chuxiong Li, Junying Leng, Mengyao Jia, Houjian Gong, Bo Wang, Fan Zhang, Zhenxue Jiang and Zipeng Wang
Minerals 2023, 13(11), 1439; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13111439 - 14 Nov 2023
Viewed by 837
Abstract
Organic matter in depositional environment is the essential material for oil and gas generation. Total organic carbon (TOC) is one of the important parameters for estimating the hydrocarbon generation potential of shale oil and predicting sweet spots. The TOC of the second member [...] Read more.
Organic matter in depositional environment is the essential material for oil and gas generation. Total organic carbon (TOC) is one of the important parameters for estimating the hydrocarbon generation potential of shale oil and predicting sweet spots. The TOC of the second member of the Funing Formation (Ef2) ranges from 0.25% to 2.30%. TOC is higher in the upper shale and lower in the lower shale of the Funing Formation, showing a significant enrichment difference. However, there have been few reports on the study of the main controlling factors for the differential enrichment of organic matter in Ef2. This study aims to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of lacustrine shale in Ef2. Additionally, this study aims to clarify the influence of the paleoenvironment on the differential enrichment of organic matter in Ef2. For this purpose, systematic mineralogical and geochemical analyses were conducted on 72 samples from a representative well. The results indicate that, based on parameters such as paleoclimate (chemical index of alteration, CIA), paleosalinity (Sr/Ba), paleoredox conditions (Cu/Zn), paleoproductivity (P/Ti), water depth (Rb/K), and terrigenous clastic input (Al, Ti), the paleoenvironment during the deposition of the Ef2 shale clearly exhibited significant changes. During the early stage, the climate was hot and dry, with shallow water, weak chemical weathering, low productivity, and salinity ranging from saline to brackish. In the later stage, the climate became warm and humid, with deeper water, moderate chemical weathering, high productivity, and salinity ranging from brackish to freshwater. There are significant errors in directly using the Sr/Ba index to evaluate the paleosalinity of Ef2 shale. Carbonate minerals and calcium-rich bioclasts may increase the Sr/Ba ratio, and the corrected Sr element content is only 44.29% of the original sample. The enrichment of organic matter is clearly controlled by productivity levels and climatic conditions. The higher the paleoproductivity and the warmer and more humid the climate, the more enriched the organic matter becomes. Fundamental differences in paleoproductivity govern the enrichment of organic matter during the deposition process of the Ef2 shale. The organic matter enrichment pattern in the Ef2 shale represents a typical productivity model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment)
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22 pages, 32001 KiB  
Article
Pore Structure and Geochemical Characteristics of Alkaline Lacustrine Shale: The Fengcheng Formation of Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin
by Caijun Li, Tao Hu, Tingting Cao, Xiongqi Pang, Zhiming Xiong, Xiaofei Lin, Huiyi Xiao, Yuxuan Chen, Fan Yang, Liwei Jiang and Fujie Jiang
Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101248 - 24 Sep 2023
Viewed by 967
Abstract
Shale oil and gas are currently the major fields of unconventional hydrocarbon exploration and development. The Fengcheng Formation (FF) shale in the Mahu Sag of the Junggar Basin is an alkaline lacustrine organic-rich shale with an extremely prospective shale oil potential. However, its [...] Read more.
Shale oil and gas are currently the major fields of unconventional hydrocarbon exploration and development. The Fengcheng Formation (FF) shale in the Mahu Sag of the Junggar Basin is an alkaline lacustrine organic-rich shale with an extremely prospective shale oil potential. However, its strong heterogeneity and complex pore structure greatly influence the development of shale oil. It is significant to investigate the pore and geochemical characteristics of shale reservoirs for shale oil extraction. In this study, the pore structure and geochemical characteristics of FF have been investigated using core analysis, Rock-Eval pyrolysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP), low-temperature gas adsorption (LTGA), and X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT). The results show that the shale of FF has moderate organic matter abundance, and the kerogen is mainly of Type II, which is now at the peak of oil generation. Shale minerals are mainly composed of carbonate (dolomite and calcite) and siliceous (quartz and feldspar) minerals, with extremely low clay mineral content. The pore types are mainly intergranular pores (inter-P), intragranular pores (intra-P), and microfractures associated with mineral particles. The pore space is contributed predominantly by micropores of 0.5–1.2 nm and mesopores of 10–50 nm, whereas macropores are underdeveloped. The pores are mostly ink bottle- and slit-shaped, and the pore connectivity is relatively poor. The pore development of shale in the FF is influenced by organic matter abundance, thermal maturity, mineral composition, etc. Organic matter content (TOC), thermal maturity (Ro), and carbonate minerals have a positive effect on pore development, and the pore volume (PV) increases with TOC, Ro, and carbonate minerals. While clay minerals show a negative effect, the PV decreases with clay minerals. Additionally, the influence of the clay mineral content on the pore morphology of shale should not be ignored. This study investigates the pore structure and geochemical characteristics of the alkaline lacustrine shale of FF in Mahu Sag, which is significant to deepen the understanding of alkaline lacustrine shale and to improve the production of shale oil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Lithological Control of Shale Oil and Gas Enrichment)
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