International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Research

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17 pages, 403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“It Is Scary, but Then I Just Do It Anyway”: Children’s Experiences and Concerns about Risk and Challenge during Loose Parts Play

by Martin van Rooijen, Kristine De Martelaer, Gerty Lensvelt-Mulders, Lisette van der Poel and Mieke Cotterink

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(22), 7032; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20227032 - 07 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1910

Abstract

Children’s risky play opportunities depend on supervising adults’ attitudes and the play environment. The possibilities to engage in risk-taking outdoor play for children have seriously decreased over the last few decades, due to safety concerns and adults’ preoccupation with protection. In response to [...] Read more.

Children’s risky play opportunities depend on supervising adults’ attitudes and the play environment. The possibilities to engage in risk-taking outdoor play for children have seriously decreased over the last few decades, due to safety concerns and adults’ preoccupation with protection. In response to this shift, research has increasingly focused on influencing factors on professional attitudes toward risk-taking in children’s play. However, children’s perspective on risky play is underrepresented in the recent literature. This study generates awareness of children’s risky play preferences and interests to help professional caretakers hone their facilitating role. We explored children’s notions of risk and challenge in play during a loose parts intervention stimulating risky play and facilitated by after-school childcare practitioners. A thematic analysis examined observations, informal conversations, and roundtable talks with children about their risky play experiences. Children describe their risk-taking in play as experimental and daring. The findings report on children’s general views on risky play, their play experiences with loose parts, their real-life risky play experiences, and their opinions on the role of practitioners. By relating the results to risky play research and self-determination theory, this study offers insight into children’s innate needs. Taking risks on their own terms gives children a sense of self-confidence and mastery, and forces them into new relationships with other children and guiding adults. Consequently, children fulfill the three universal needs of self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

11 pages, 324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Outdoor Time, Space, and Restrictions Imposed on Children’s Play in Australian Early Childhood Education and Care Settings during the COVID Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Survey from Educators’ Perspective

by Junjie Liu, Shirley Wyver, Muhammad Chutiyami and Helen Little

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(18), 6779; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20186779 - 18 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1460

Abstract

The study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on children’s access to the outdoors in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings. An online survey comprised of a standardised scale and questions used in previous related studies was completed by 143 [...] Read more.

The study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on children’s access to the outdoors in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings. An online survey comprised of a standardised scale and questions used in previous related studies was completed by 143 early childhood educators across Australia. Participants were asked to report children’s time spent outdoors, access to outdoor space, and restrictions imposed on children’s play during the pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic period. The survey responses were imported into SPSS for descriptive, correlation, and ordinal regression analyses. We examined the relationship between children’s outdoor time, space, restrictions imposed on children’s play, and educators’ characteristics, such as qualifications, professional development, and tolerance of risk or staff–child ratios during the pandemic in Australia. Most educators reported that children’s outdoor time and access to outdoor space remained the same compared to before the pandemic, while imposed restrictions on children’s outdoor play increased. The results of ordinal regressions indicated that educators with a higher tolerance of risk were less likely to impose additional restrictions on children’s outdoor play. The findings contribute to the understanding of how educators’ tolerance of risk influences children’s outdoor play opportunities and provide directions for future risk-reframing interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

12 pages, 1973 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of the Movement Pattern Observation Tool (MPOT)—An Observational Tool to Measure Limb Movements during Elementary School Recess

by Gemma Kate Webb and Deborah J. Rhea

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(8), 5589; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085589 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1436

Abstract

Background: The US Center for Disease Control estimates that only 24% of American elementary-aged children participate in the recommended 60 min of daily physical activity. As activity levels decline, elementary schools should consider increasing movement opportunities. Activity-driven school days, where children can move [...] Read more.

Background: The US Center for Disease Control estimates that only 24% of American elementary-aged children participate in the recommended 60 min of daily physical activity. As activity levels decline, elementary schools should consider increasing movement opportunities. Activity-driven school days, where children can move their limbs freely, may increase memory retention performance, behavioral impulse control, as well as bone density, and muscle strength. Unstructured, outdoor play (recess) may provide an opportunity for the brain, bone, and muscle-stimulating limb movements to be utilized. To date, no research has focused on whether the modern child actively uses limb movements during recess, nor to what degree. The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable assessment tool (Movement Pattern Observation Tool, MPOT) to observe and record limb movements (unilateral, bilateral, and contralateral movements) of elementary children during recess, defined in this study as unstructured, outdoor play. Methods: Three observers used the MPOT to complete thirty-five observations at one elementary school during kindergarten through fifth-grade recess breaks. Results: Interrater reliability approached excellent, being that excellent is above 0.90. The ICC of the master observer and observer 3 value was 0.898 (95% CI 0.757–0.957), and the ICC of the master observer and observer 2 was 0.885 (95% CI 0.599–0.967), p < 0.03. Conclusion: Inter-rater reliability was achieved through a three-phase process. This reliable recess observation tool will contribute to the body of research linking recess to physical and cognitive health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

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13 pages, 1010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of a Parent-Directed Program to Improve Infants’ Motor Skills

by Marlene Rosager Lund Pedersen, Bjarne Ibsen, Danae Dinkel, Niels Christian Møller and Lise Hestbæk

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(3), 1999; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031999 - 21 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1636

Abstract

Poor motor skills are associated with several factors that might delay children’s development. Therefore, early programs to promote a child’s motor development are essential. Within the first year of life, parents have a critical role in promoting their infant’s motor development. However, little [...] Read more.

Poor motor skills are associated with several factors that might delay children’s development. Therefore, early programs to promote a child’s motor development are essential. Within the first year of life, parents have a critical role in promoting their infant’s motor development. However, little research has explored parent-directed programs that promote infant development in a Scandinavian context. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a parent-directed program to improve infant motor development. Methods: Parents of infants received a parent-directed program that included guidance from health visitors on ways to promote motor development, videos with motor development activities and a bag with related materials. Two municipalities in Denmark took part in the study (one intervention, one control). Health visitors in both municipalities measured the infants’ age-appropriate motor skills once when the infants were between 9–11 months of age. A logistic regression model was used to analyze the data. Results: No difference was detected in motor development over time in the two municipalities regarding the proportion of children with age-appropriate motor skills. Conclusions: A parent-directed program in which parents were guided to play and encourage motor development with their infant showed no effect on infants’ age-appropriate motor skills at 9–11 months. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

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18 pages, 895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development and Validation of an Outdoor Free Play Scale for Preschool Children

by Sixian Li, Qianyi Jiang and Chenyu Deng

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(1), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010350 - 26 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2224

Abstract

Children’s outdoor free play, which is characterized by intensive physical engagement and diverse social interactions, plays a unique role in early childhood development and education. However, existing scales cannot comprehensively measure children’s performance in outdoor free play. The research purpose of this study [...] Read more.

Children’s outdoor free play, which is characterized by intensive physical engagement and diverse social interactions, plays a unique role in early childhood development and education. However, existing scales cannot comprehensively measure children’s performance in outdoor free play. The research purpose of this study was to develop and validate an Outdoor Free Play Scale for Children-Preschool Version (OFPS-P) with good reliability and validity, in order to provide a practical tool for teachers to understand the level of children’s outdoor free play. Based on the review of existing scales of children’s play and the uniqueness of children’s outdoor free play, we developed a scale with 12 items and validated the scale with two samples of preschool children with exploratory (n_sample1 = 140) and confirmatory (n_sample2 = 241) factor analyses. Four factors were identified in this scale: physical fitness, approaches to learning, social interaction, and imagination. The results indicated good reliability and validity of OFPS-P, which can be used to evaluate preschool children’s performance on outdoor free play and to support teachers’ effective support in outdoor play activities in kindergartens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

21 pages, 16151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sun-Safe Zones: Investigating Integrated Shading Strategies for Children’s Play Areas in Urban Parks

by Nikhil C. Cherian and Chamila Subasinghe

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(1), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010114 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2719

Abstract

Although Open Space Ratio is a critical control in the Development Approval process, there are no ultraviolet radiation (UVR) protection guidelines for urban parks. This study explores key strategies for shade provision in children’s play areas in urban parks, aiming to promote sun-safe [...] Read more.

Although Open Space Ratio is a critical control in the Development Approval process, there are no ultraviolet radiation (UVR) protection guidelines for urban parks. This study explores key strategies for shade provision in children’s play areas in urban parks, aiming to promote sun-safe play environments against alarming skin cancer trends. The literature review identified primary issues affecting UVR exposure in public venues, and the research comprises a shade audit of Beaton Park in Dalkeith. The methods involved using virtual park modeling and Shadow Analysis simulations to generate the daily average number of hours in shade for each month. Our recommendations based on this analysis are (a) a minimum canopy cover representing 50% of the entire ground cover; (b) a minimum diameter for a shade (umbrella) of about 2.5 times the diameter of the table; and (c) an ideal umbrella height of 90 cm from the table surface. This research proposes a potential nexus between landscape design and a UVR protection framework for child-friendly Sun-safe Zones (SsZ). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

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11 pages, 316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influences of Playfulness on Smartphone Dependency among Upper Grades of Korean Elementary Schoolers

by Seong Eon Kim and Hyoung-Kil Kang

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(12), 7185; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127185 - 11 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1576

Abstract

A paucity of research has addressed the relationship between each psychological construct of playfulness and smartphone dependency, and the purpose of this research is to understand how each psychological construct of playfulness, including physical animation, social engagement, mental spontaneity, emotional fluidity, and humorous [...] Read more.

A paucity of research has addressed the relationship between each psychological construct of playfulness and smartphone dependency, and the purpose of this research is to understand how each psychological construct of playfulness, including physical animation, social engagement, mental spontaneity, emotional fluidity, and humorous perspective playfulness, influences smartphone dependency of the upper grades of elementary schoolers. For this purpose, a total of 278 questionnaires was analyzed for descriptive, correlation, and multiple regression analysis. The correlation analysis showed that respondents’ age positively and parents’ education levels negatively correlates to smartphone dependency. The multiple regression analyses showed that physical animation playfulness and emotional fluidity playfulness negatively and social engagement playfulness positively influence smartphone dependency of the respondents. The findings indicate that to reduce smartphone dependency among elementary schoolers, physical animation and emotional fluidity playfulness need to be promoted. The findings also suggest that each component of playfulness has distinctive advantages and disadvantages of developmental processes in childhood, and more future research endeavors need to be directed to understand the role of playfulness in children’s behaviors and cognitive processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

Review

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19 pages, 2996 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mommy, Can I Play Outside? How Urban Design Influences Parental Attitudes on Play

by Jinyun Lyu, Huiying Yang and Stella Christie

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(6), 4909; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064909 - 10 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2241

Abstract

Although play results in physical, social, and cognitive benefits, there is a consensus that children’s opportunities to play have been reduced, particularly for those who live in urban environments. What are the barriers to play, and how can we mitigate them? This review [...] Read more.

Although play results in physical, social, and cognitive benefits, there is a consensus that children’s opportunities to play have been reduced, particularly for those who live in urban environments. What are the barriers to play, and how can we mitigate them? This review examines a critical factor in play opportunities: parents as the decision-makers with regard to children’s play. Using perspectives from psychology, urban design, and cognitive science, we analyze the relationships between the design of built environments, parental attitudes and beliefs, and parental decisions on allowing children to play. For example, can a new implementation of children-centered urban design change parents’ skeptical attitude toward play? By drawing from global studies, we chart (1) the three key beliefs of parents regarding play and built environments: play should benefit learning, be safe, and match the child’s competence and (2) the design principles that can foster these beliefs: learning, social, and progressive challenge designs. By making the link between parents, urban design, and play explicit, this paper aims to inform parents, educators, policymakers, urban planners, and architects on the evidence-based measures for creating and increasing opportunities to play. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

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30 pages, 1528 KiB

Open AccessReview

Environmental Qualities That Enhance Outdoor Play in Community Playgrounds from the Perspective of Children with and without Disabilities: A Scoping Review

by Thomas Morgenthaler, Christina Schulze, Duncan Pentland and Helen Lynch

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(3), 1763; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031763 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6123

Abstract

For children, playgrounds are important environments. However, children’s perspectives are often not acknowledged in playground provision, design, and evaluation. This scoping review aimed to summarize the users’ (children with and without disabilities) perspectives on environmental qualities that enhance their play experiences in community [...] Read more.

For children, playgrounds are important environments. However, children’s perspectives are often not acknowledged in playground provision, design, and evaluation. This scoping review aimed to summarize the users’ (children with and without disabilities) perspectives on environmental qualities that enhance their play experiences in community playgrounds. Published peer-reviewed studies were systematically searched in seven databases from disciplines of architecture, education, health, and social sciences; 2905 studies were screened, and the last search was performed in January 2023. Included studies (N = 51) were charted, and a qualitative content analysis was conducted. Five themes were formed which provided insights into how both physical and social environmental qualities combined provide for maximum play value in outdoor play experiences. These multifaceted play experiences included the desire for fun, challenge, and intense play, the wish to self-direct play, and the value of playing alone as well as with known people and animals. Fundamentally, children wished for playgrounds to be children’s places that were welcoming, safe, and aesthetically pleasing. The results are discussed in respect to social, physical, and atmospheric environmental affordances and the adult’s role in playground provision. This scoping review represents the valuable insights of children regardless of abilities and informs about how to maximise outdoor play experiences for all children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Children’s Play: Contributions to Health and Development)

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