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Fire
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Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials
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Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials

A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2025 | Viewed by 9854

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Yan Ding

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: material flammability; flame retardant mechanism; pyrolysis and flame spread modleing
Prof. Dr. Keqing Zhou

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: flame retardants; functionalized aerogels; emergency disposal of hazardous chemicals; grouting materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Kaili Gong

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: flame retardants; MXene; 2D material; polymer-matrix composites

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The inherent flammability of combustible materials, which have been widely used in construction, transportation, and household products, poses a significant threat to our society. The incorporation of flame retardants to these combustible solids provides an effective solution to this problem. Currently, various flame retardant formulations are being developed and used in clothing, firefighting, military defense, petrochemicals and other fields, including phosphorus, nitrogen, silicon, boron and metal hydroxide-containing flame retardant materials. An in-depth understanding of the flame retardancy mechanism, as well as an advance in development of highly efficient and eco-friendly flame retardant materials, would contribute to a reduction in both frequency and severity of fire events.

This Special Issue aims to present and disseminate the most advances related to the experiments, modeling, and theoretical work of the development in flame retardant materials. In this Special Issue, both original articles and reviews are welcome. Topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to:

  • Flame retardant materials design and development;
  • Material flammability and flame retardancy;
  • Pyrolysis and flame spread modeling of flame retardant materials;
  • Flame retardant coating;
  • Future perspectives for flame retardant materials/polymers;
  • Research techniques that combine experiments and numerical modeling.

Prof. Dr. Yan Ding
Prof. Dr. Keqing Zhou
Dr. Kaili Gong
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • flame retardant mechanism
  • flame retardant materials
  • material flammability
  • pyrolysis/flame spread modeling

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 10342 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Characterization of Microencapsulated Ammonium Polyphosphate with Polyurethane Shell and Its Flame Retardance in Polypropylene
by Thuy Tien Nguyen Thanh, Ziya Yusifov, Bence Tóth, Katalin Bocz, Péter Márton, Zoltán Hórvölgyi, György Marosi and Beáta Szolnoki
Fire 2024, 7(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7030097 - 19 Mar 2024
Viewed by 929
Abstract
Polypropylene (PP) shows no charring ability in burning due to the lack of hydroxyl functional groups; thus, the flame retardant system needs an additional amount of carbonizing agent. An ammonium polyphosphate (APP)-based all-in-one intumescent flame-retardant system was prepared by the in situ polymerization [...] Read more.
Polypropylene (PP) shows no charring ability in burning due to the lack of hydroxyl functional groups; thus, the flame retardant system needs an additional amount of carbonizing agent. An ammonium polyphosphate (APP)-based all-in-one intumescent flame-retardant system was prepared by the in situ polymerization of polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI) with a glycerol-based and a glycerol–sorbitol-based polyol of high OH value. The microencapsulated APP with a polyurethane shell (MCAPP) of different polyols was characterized. The MCAPP with speculated improved flame retardant performance was selected for further evaluation in the PP matrix at different loadings by means of standard flammability tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials)
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12 pages, 3851 KiB  
Article
Si-N Matrix as an Effective Fire Retardant Source for Cotton Fabric, Prepared through Sol–Gel Process
by Zeeshan Ur Rehman, Laila Khan, Lee Hwain, Yun Chiho and Bon Heun Koo
Fire 2024, 7(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7030069 - 26 Feb 2024
Viewed by 868
Abstract
In this study, process control factors such as dipping time, heat treatment time and curing conditions were optimized to prepare N-Si network sol–gel-based coatings on a cotton fabric. The dipping time was varied from 14 h to 30 min, the heat treatment time [...] Read more.
In this study, process control factors such as dipping time, heat treatment time and curing conditions were optimized to prepare N-Si network sol–gel-based coatings on a cotton fabric. The dipping time was varied from 14 h to 30 min, the heat treatment time at ~90 °C was varied between no heating conditions to 15 h and the curing was performed at 165 °C. The microstructure of the coating was analyzed using low electron scanning microscopy (LV-SEM), while a compositional study of the coated substrate was carried out using FTIR and EDS techniques. From the thermal and combustion analysis of the coated samples using thermogravimetric and vertical flame test techniques, significant resistance to the degradation process was observed, particularly in the initial stages, in addition to the highest char residue for DI-0.5 h-15~32.93%. Similarly, for DI–5 h–RT, the peak degradation temperature was around ~372 °C, accompanied by a notable char residue of approximately 31.12%. The flame spread and burning rate profile further supported the findings; DI-0.5 h-15 and DI-5 h-RT had the lowest flame spread. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials)
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15 pages, 4103 KiB  
Article
A Study of the Degradation Mechanism of Ladder-like Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane via Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
by Shengdong Xiao, Xuemei Cui and Jude O. Iroh
Fire 2023, 6(11), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6110429 - 09 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1420
Abstract
As a result of global warming, fire outbreaks are becoming a common occurrence. There is, therefore, the need for an effective, low-cost and environmentally friendly fire-retardant material. Amine-terminated polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane, ATL-POSS, is a low-cost, water-soluble, fire-retardant material based on aminosilane coupling agents. [...] Read more.
As a result of global warming, fire outbreaks are becoming a common occurrence. There is, therefore, the need for an effective, low-cost and environmentally friendly fire-retardant material. Amine-terminated polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane, ATL-POSS, is a low-cost, water-soluble, fire-retardant material based on aminosilane coupling agents. Because of its solubility in water, it can serve as a general-purpose fire retardant. The ATL-POSS nanoparticles reported in this paper have high char retentions of about 75 and 54% in nitrogen and air atmospheres, respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to determine the phase transition temperatures. It was shown that ATL-POSS is an amorphous material. The thermal stability and rate of decomposition of POSS was determined by using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The TGA derivative curves (DTA) show that the degradation of ladder-like POSS occurred in multiple stages and that the rate of degradation is affected by the heating rate. The mechanism of decomposition of ATL-POSS was determined by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR. The FTIR technique was chosen for this study because of its accessibility and ability to distinguish ladder-like POSS from the cage-type POSS structures. The FTIR spectra showed that the -Si-O-Si- cyclic structure was the predominant structure of POSS. By analyzing the FTIR spectra of the thermally treated POSS residues, obtained at the specified test temperatures, the detailed degradation mechanism of POSS was inferred. It was shown that the terminal silanol group was degraded at test temperatures below 400 °C. Silica was shown to be the final product of the pyrolysis of POSS. The presence of the FTIR transmission peaks at 1000 and 1100 cm−1, due to asymmetric vertical and horizontal stretching vibrations of the Si-O-Si, respectively, was the key evidence used to infer the ladder-like structure of POSS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials)
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14 pages, 5542 KiB  
Article
The Incorporation of Ladle Furnace Slag in Fire Insulating Gypsum-Based Materials
by Begoña Peceño, Eva M. Pérez-Soriano, Yolanda Luna-Galiano and Carlos Leiva
Fire 2023, 6(11), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6110416 - 27 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1403
Abstract
Ladle slag, a byproduct of steel manufacturing, exhibits inherent reactivity and undergoes hydration when exposed to water. Nevertheless, these reaction byproducts often remain metastable, leading to microstructural alterations when incorporated into cementitious materials, thereby limiting the recycling potential of ladle slag. This study [...] Read more.
Ladle slag, a byproduct of steel manufacturing, exhibits inherent reactivity and undergoes hydration when exposed to water. Nevertheless, these reaction byproducts often remain metastable, leading to microstructural alterations when incorporated into cementitious materials, thereby limiting the recycling potential of ladle slag. This study explores the fire insulating capacity and the physical, mechanical, and leaching characteristics of gypsum-based materials with substantial quantities of ladle slag in instead of gypsum. The mechanical strength of the specimens declines as the ladle slag content increases. Nevertheless, the percentage decrease in compressive strength at various temperatures (300 °C, 500 °C, and 700 °C) is less pronounced when higher amounts of ladle slag are used. Fire-resistant properties, assessed using the EN 1363-1 standards, diminish with increasing slag proportions; although the inclusion of ladle slag introduces certain endothermic processes that positively affect the fire insulating capacity, resulting in a 20% reduction when 60%wt of slag is employed. Notably, no gas emissions were observed during the fire test, indicating the absence of environmental hazards. In conclusion, ladle slag does not pose a leaching threat to the environment, making it a viable and sustainable alternative to gypsum in gypsum-based materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials)
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Review

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22 pages, 2141 KiB  
Review
Flame Retardant Additives Used for Polyurea-Based Elastomers—A Review
by W. Dukarski, I. Rykowska, P. Krzyżanowski and M. Gonsior
Fire 2024, 7(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7020050 - 07 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1675
Abstract
The growing interest in modern polymer materials has targeted research on complex plastic coatings and the possibilities of modifying their features and properties during manufacturing. Today’s modern coatings, including polyurea and polyurethane, are among the most modern developed resins. Compared to other polymer [...] Read more.
The growing interest in modern polymer materials has targeted research on complex plastic coatings and the possibilities of modifying their features and properties during manufacturing. Today’s modern coatings, including polyurea and polyurethane, are among the most modern developed resins. Compared to other polymer coatings, they are distinguished by their versatility, strength, and durability. They undoubtedly represent the next step in the evolution of coatings. Advances in coating technology have also led to the development of spray, injection, and roto-cast application equipment, improving polyurea-based elastomers’ performance. For many years, there has been much interest in increasing the flame resistance of polymers. This is dictated by safety considerations and the increasing requirements for the flammability of plastics, the area of application of which is growing every year. This text attempts to provide an overview of current research on flame retardant composites. Particular attention was paid to polyurea (PU) and polyurea-based hybrids and the application areas of polyurea coatings. The paper defines flame retardants, discusses how they work, and presents the types of flame retardants and the current trends of their usage in the production of plastics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials)
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31 pages, 2607 KiB  
Review
Bushfire Management Strategies: Current Practice, Technological Advancement and Challenges
by Sahan Bandara, Satheeskumar Navaratnam and Pathmanathan Rajeev
Fire 2023, 6(11), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6110421 - 03 Nov 2023
Viewed by 2740
Abstract
Bushfires are classified as catastrophic disasters capable of inflicting significant destruction. The key detrimental consequences of bushfires include the loss of human lives, trauma within communities, economic losses and environmental damage. For example, the estimated economic loss from the September 2019 to March [...] Read more.
Bushfires are classified as catastrophic disasters capable of inflicting significant destruction. The key detrimental consequences of bushfires include the loss of human lives, trauma within communities, economic losses and environmental damage. For example, the estimated economic loss from the September 2019 to March 2020 bushfires in New South Wales (Australia) was about AUD 110 billion, including more than 3000 burned houses. There has been a notable increase in both the frequency and intensity of bushfires, as clearly demonstrated by recent bushfire events. Bushfires are an intricate phenomenon that transpires across various spatial and temporal scales. Further, the changing circumstances of landscapes, vegetation patterns, weather conditions and ecosystems account for the complexity. Therefore, continual attention is essential for the development of bushfire management strategies. In this context, this paper undertakes a comprehensive literature review of bushfire management strategies, encompassing aspects such as bushfire prediction, detection, suppression and prevention. Based on the review, a bushfire management framework is proposed that can eliminate or successfully mitigate the consequences of bushfires. Further, the paper delves into the domains of fire weather conditions, the initiation of bushfires and the adverse consequences stemming from these fires. Both terrestrial and aerial remote sensing methods have proven to be effective in predicting and detecting bushfires. Nevertheless, a simple unique solution cannot be proposed for bushfire management. Changing weather conditions, topography and the geographic mix of asset types need to be considered when deciding on bushfire management strategies and their breadth and depth of application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Flame Retardant Materials)
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